1
00:00:00,520 --> 00:00:01,353
- [Dr. Scottgale] So at this time,

2
00:00:01,353 --> 00:00:04,690
I'd like to introduce Dr. Thea Popolizio

3
00:00:04,690 --> 00:00:06,560
who's also a member of our department

4
00:00:06,560 --> 00:00:07,550
and the Darwin Festival Committee,

5
00:00:07,550 --> 00:00:09,510
and she will introduce our speaker today.

6
00:00:09,510 --> 00:00:10,800
Dr. Popolizio.

7
00:00:11,706 --> 00:00:12,670
- Thanks Dr. Scottgale.

8
00:00:12,670 --> 00:00:16,280
It's my pleasure to welcome Dr. Amy Maas

9
00:00:16,280 --> 00:00:19,460
to speak at our 2022 Darwin Festival.

10
00:00:19,460 --> 00:00:21,830
Dr. Maas received a bachelor's degree

11
00:00:21,830 --> 00:00:23,740
from Hiram College in Ohio

12
00:00:23,740 --> 00:00:26,830
and a PhD from the
University of Rhode Island.

13
00:00:26,830 --> 00:00:28,250
During her graduate study,

14
00:00:28,250 --> 00:00:30,030
she worked in Antarctica

15
00:00:30,030 --> 00:00:32,220
and at sea in the Eastern Pacific

16
00:00:32,220 --> 00:00:34,740
exploring the impacts
of climate variability

17
00:00:34,740 --> 00:00:38,650
on marine invertebrates living
in extreme environments.

18
00:00:38,650 --> 00:00:40,630
After completing her doctorate,

19
00:00:40,630 --> 00:00:42,440
Dr. Maas was jointly appointed

20
00:00:42,440 --> 00:00:44,490
as an assistant research scientist

21
00:00:44,490 --> 00:00:46,180
at the University of Connecticut

22
00:00:46,180 --> 00:00:48,800
Marine Science Center at Avery Point

23
00:00:48,800 --> 00:00:50,150
and a postdoctoral scholar

24
00:00:50,150 --> 00:00:52,270
at the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution

25
00:00:52,270 --> 00:00:54,410
right here in Massachusetts.

26
00:00:54,410 --> 00:00:57,500
At WHOI, she studied the
effects of ocean acidification

27
00:00:57,500 --> 00:00:59,600
on marine invertebrates called pteropods,

28
00:00:59,600 --> 00:01:01,920
commonly known as sea butterflies,

29
00:01:01,920 --> 00:01:03,890
and will be presenting some of that work

30
00:01:03,890 --> 00:01:05,203
during today's talk.

31
00:01:06,080 --> 00:01:09,390
Dr. Maas is presently an
associate research scientist

32
00:01:09,390 --> 00:01:11,920
at the Bermuda Institute
of Marine Science,

33
00:01:11,920 --> 00:01:14,780
which she joined in 2015,

34
00:01:14,780 --> 00:01:16,880
excuse me, Bermuda
Institute of Ocean Sciences,

35
00:01:16,880 --> 00:01:18,770
which she joined in 2015.

36
00:01:18,770 --> 00:01:20,690
At BIOS she continues to investigate

37
00:01:20,690 --> 00:01:23,190
changes in the physiology and distribution

38
00:01:23,190 --> 00:01:24,520
of marine invertebrates

39
00:01:24,520 --> 00:01:27,620
and in response to environmental factors.

40
00:01:27,620 --> 00:01:29,200
To add a quick personal note,

41
00:01:29,200 --> 00:01:31,050
Dr. Maas and I share a few connections.

42
00:01:31,050 --> 00:01:33,690
We overlapped as graduate students at URI

43
00:01:33,690 --> 00:01:36,520
and shared some fun times together there.

44
00:01:36,520 --> 00:01:38,860
We both lived and worked
in the Bermuda Islands

45
00:01:38,860 --> 00:01:40,770
and more specifically at BIOS,

46
00:01:40,770 --> 00:01:43,850
though not at the same time, sadly,

47
00:01:43,850 --> 00:01:45,830
and we also have research interests

48
00:01:45,830 --> 00:01:47,420
that involve some lesser known

49
00:01:47,420 --> 00:01:51,750
and perhaps underappreciated
marine organisms.

50
00:01:51,750 --> 00:01:53,690
So, Dr. Maas, I'm excited for you

51
00:01:53,690 --> 00:01:56,330
to bring some awareness and appreciation

52
00:01:56,330 --> 00:01:57,960
for your study organisms here today,

53
00:01:57,960 --> 00:02:00,610
and I wanna extend a warm welcome to you

54
00:02:00,610 --> 00:02:02,480
on behalf of the Biology Department

55
00:02:02,480 --> 00:02:04,300
and the whole Salem State community.

56
00:02:04,300 --> 00:02:06,570
Thanks for being with us today.

57
00:02:06,570 --> 00:02:07,403
- Thank you, Thea.

58
00:02:07,403 --> 00:02:08,620
It has been really fun

59
00:02:08,620 --> 00:02:10,880
to come up with this
presentation for you guys.

60
00:02:10,880 --> 00:02:12,580
And as Thea said,

61
00:02:12,580 --> 00:02:13,570
this is work that I did

62
00:02:13,570 --> 00:02:16,320
when I was at Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution,

63
00:02:16,320 --> 00:02:18,710
so these are New England water organisms

64
00:02:18,710 --> 00:02:20,170
that I've going to be talking about.

65
00:02:20,170 --> 00:02:23,340
And this beautiful little
critter right here is a pteropod,

66
00:02:23,340 --> 00:02:25,603
which is going to be
the center of my talk.

67
00:02:26,700 --> 00:02:28,367
So although I am now in Bermuda,

68
00:02:28,367 --> 00:02:31,370
and yes, it's beautiful here
right now at 68 degrees,

69
00:02:31,370 --> 00:02:33,930
I do continue to work in
the New England waters

70
00:02:33,930 --> 00:02:36,250
on this particular species.

71
00:02:36,250 --> 00:02:38,230
So, looking forward to explaining to you

72
00:02:38,230 --> 00:02:40,700
how we use this species, this pteropod,

73
00:02:40,700 --> 00:02:42,623
as a bioindicator of climate change.

74
00:02:43,940 --> 00:02:44,773
Clicking.

75
00:02:46,290 --> 00:02:48,030
So in general, I wanted to zoom back

76
00:02:48,030 --> 00:02:50,090
and first explain to you

77
00:02:50,090 --> 00:02:51,950
sort of what my research focus is.

78
00:02:51,950 --> 00:02:53,530
So I'm originally from Ohio,

79
00:02:53,530 --> 00:02:55,260
didn't know very much about the ocean,

80
00:02:55,260 --> 00:02:57,210
but after moving to Rhode Island

81
00:02:57,210 --> 00:02:59,320
and living in the East Coast,

82
00:02:59,320 --> 00:03:01,380
I really came to understand that the ocean

83
00:03:01,380 --> 00:03:04,900
is truly a shared resource
for all of humanity.

84
00:03:04,900 --> 00:03:06,700
It's an important global environment,

85
00:03:06,700 --> 00:03:08,880
but it also provides a
lot of what we will call

86
00:03:08,880 --> 00:03:10,000
an ecosystem function,

87
00:03:10,000 --> 00:03:11,550
it does jobs for us as humans.

88
00:03:11,550 --> 00:03:13,530
And some of those are providing food

89
00:03:13,530 --> 00:03:15,440
and oxygen for us to breathe,

90
00:03:15,440 --> 00:03:17,640
but it also balances
the world's temperature,

91
00:03:17,640 --> 00:03:21,283
water, and various
geochemical budgets, right?

92
00:03:22,670 --> 00:03:26,000
But we also know, because we
are a connected global system,

93
00:03:26,000 --> 00:03:29,420
that human activities have an
impact on this ocean system.

94
00:03:29,420 --> 00:03:31,330
And so my work is really embedded

95
00:03:31,330 --> 00:03:33,660
in this idea that climate
change is happening

96
00:03:33,660 --> 00:03:35,140
and it's affecting the ocean

97
00:03:35,140 --> 00:03:36,400
and the animals in the ocean

98
00:03:36,400 --> 00:03:40,430
then have to deal with stressful
and non-ideal conditions

99
00:03:40,430 --> 00:03:43,400
that can change their
behavior and their physiology.

100
00:03:43,400 --> 00:03:46,380
And as single individual animals respond,

101
00:03:46,380 --> 00:03:49,670
this can have profound changes
in what the ecosystem does,

102
00:03:49,670 --> 00:03:50,930
how carbon moves through the system,

103
00:03:50,930 --> 00:03:52,390
how the food web is structured,

104
00:03:52,390 --> 00:03:54,750
and it can change how much
biodiversity there is.

105
00:03:54,750 --> 00:03:56,420
This can be at multiple different levels,

106
00:03:56,420 --> 00:03:58,800
whether you see different
species coming or going,

107
00:03:58,800 --> 00:04:01,450
but also its species or
subpopulation levels.

108
00:04:01,450 --> 00:04:04,650
How many individuals
of a species there are,

109
00:04:04,650 --> 00:04:06,770
how variable their populations are.

110
00:04:06,770 --> 00:04:09,830
And the thing is is that
biodiversity and ecosystem function

111
00:04:09,830 --> 00:04:12,530
actually feedback into climate.

112
00:04:12,530 --> 00:04:15,090
The things that animals do affect climate,

113
00:04:15,090 --> 00:04:18,420
and so that can either exacerbate
or reduce climate change.

114
00:04:18,420 --> 00:04:21,630
So getting a sense of how
these animals are responding

115
00:04:21,630 --> 00:04:23,780
to these non-ideal stressful conditions

116
00:04:23,780 --> 00:04:25,380
that humans are placing on the environment

117
00:04:25,380 --> 00:04:28,707
gives us a sense of what
might happen in the future.

118
00:04:28,707 --> 00:04:31,290
And when I talk about it
changing ocean environment

119
00:04:31,290 --> 00:04:32,210
and I say climate change,

120
00:04:32,210 --> 00:04:34,680
that's a very broad
umbrella for a lot of things

121
00:04:34,680 --> 00:04:37,050
that are just happening in
this global change environment.

122
00:04:37,050 --> 00:04:38,550
So as you know,

123
00:04:38,550 --> 00:04:40,300
the oceans are facing a lot of differences

124
00:04:40,300 --> 00:04:41,560
that are due to human impact.

125
00:04:41,560 --> 00:04:44,320
Some of them are warming,
ocean acidification,

126
00:04:44,320 --> 00:04:48,180
hypoxia, which means
decreasing oxygen, pollution,

127
00:04:48,180 --> 00:04:51,570
and also changes in food
availability in different places.

128
00:04:51,570 --> 00:04:52,403
And in this talk,

129
00:04:52,403 --> 00:04:54,610
I'm really gonna focus
on ocean acidification,

130
00:04:54,610 --> 00:04:55,740
but I want you to keep in mind

131
00:04:55,740 --> 00:04:57,220
that everything that I'm talking about

132
00:04:57,220 --> 00:04:59,110
is in the context of these
other broader things.

133
00:04:59,110 --> 00:05:01,120
And particularly in coastal environments,

134
00:05:01,120 --> 00:05:02,790
like the Gulf of Maine,

135
00:05:02,790 --> 00:05:05,270
you actually have a lot of
things happening all at once,

136
00:05:05,270 --> 00:05:07,050
which means animal have to respond

137
00:05:07,050 --> 00:05:08,600
to a bunch of different things.

138
00:05:09,491 --> 00:05:12,580
Look, to simplify, we're gonna
look at ocean acidification.

139
00:05:12,580 --> 00:05:14,140
Now for those of you who are unfamiliar

140
00:05:14,140 --> 00:05:15,910
with the concept of ocean acidification,

141
00:05:15,910 --> 00:05:19,230
what you need to know
is that as we burn coal,

142
00:05:19,230 --> 00:05:22,990
oil, natural gas, all
these things that we do,

143
00:05:22,990 --> 00:05:25,720
it releases CO2 into the atmosphere

144
00:05:25,720 --> 00:05:28,410
and that CO2 acts as a
heat-trapping blanket,

145
00:05:28,410 --> 00:05:29,980
that's that global warming part,

146
00:05:29,980 --> 00:05:32,460
but some of it dissolves into the ocean.

147
00:05:32,460 --> 00:05:36,660
So 30% of human-based
CO2 ends up in the ocean.

148
00:05:36,660 --> 00:05:38,190
And this is just a passive dissolution,

149
00:05:38,190 --> 00:05:39,150
nobody's doing anything,

150
00:05:39,150 --> 00:05:42,490
it just bubbles in and
comes to equilibrium.

151
00:05:42,490 --> 00:05:45,820
The thing about that is that
when CO2 enters the water,

152
00:05:45,820 --> 00:05:47,410
it dissolves and it causes

153
00:05:47,410 --> 00:05:49,587
a bunch of different
chemical equilibria to shift

154
00:05:49,587 --> 00:05:52,910
and this causes a drop
in the pH of the ocean.

155
00:05:52,910 --> 00:05:55,867
We've already seen a 0.1
drop in the global ocean,

156
00:05:55,867 --> 00:06:00,333
and we expect another 0.3
drop in the next 100 years.

157
00:06:02,200 --> 00:06:05,315
And so what this means, first of all,

158
00:06:05,315 --> 00:06:10,315
is that there's a lot of things
that change when pH changes.

159
00:06:11,500 --> 00:06:14,480
When CO2 goes into the ocean system,

160
00:06:14,480 --> 00:06:17,310
there's a bunch of chemical
equilibria that are affected.

161
00:06:17,310 --> 00:06:19,920
So CO2 dissolves, it interacts with water,

162
00:06:19,920 --> 00:06:24,080
shifts the equilibrium
towards carbonic acid

163
00:06:24,080 --> 00:06:25,390
and this dissociates.

164
00:06:25,390 --> 00:06:26,850
And in the end what you really get

165
00:06:26,850 --> 00:06:29,570
is changes in the hydrogen
ion concentration,

166
00:06:29,570 --> 00:06:31,180
which is the thing that controls pH,

167
00:06:31,180 --> 00:06:32,390
but you also get changes

168
00:06:32,390 --> 00:06:35,260
in something called the
carbonate ion concentration.

169
00:06:35,260 --> 00:06:38,750
And as you get below a certain level,

170
00:06:38,750 --> 00:06:40,590
carbonate ions which are used

171
00:06:40,590 --> 00:06:43,700
by shell-building organisms to make shells

172
00:06:43,700 --> 00:06:47,350
start to dissolve back
into the ocean system.

173
00:06:47,350 --> 00:06:51,470
So ocean acidification
can actually affect things

174
00:06:51,470 --> 00:06:52,552
in a number of different ways.

175
00:06:52,552 --> 00:06:54,387
It affects the CO2,
affects the hydrogen ions,

176
00:06:54,387 --> 00:06:56,000
and it affects the carbonate ions.

177
00:06:56,000 --> 00:06:58,630
And this shift in that carbonate ions

178
00:06:58,630 --> 00:07:00,940
is something we call
the saturation horizon.

179
00:07:00,940 --> 00:07:04,030
So you might hear me
say that later on again,

180
00:07:04,030 --> 00:07:06,990
this is when things go
from possibly dissolving

181
00:07:06,990 --> 00:07:10,313
to staying in a crystal
structure, staying connected.

182
00:07:12,980 --> 00:07:14,960
But what does all that mean for biology?

183
00:07:14,960 --> 00:07:17,140
That's actually three
different things changing,

184
00:07:17,140 --> 00:07:19,730
CO2, pH, and carbonate ions.

185
00:07:19,730 --> 00:07:21,630
Well, photosynthesis,

186
00:07:21,630 --> 00:07:23,970
which is the reaction that plants undergo

187
00:07:23,970 --> 00:07:27,140
to turn light into carbon,

188
00:07:27,140 --> 00:07:29,820
for them an increase in CO2 is great

189
00:07:29,820 --> 00:07:32,960
because that's the substrate
for them making sugar.

190
00:07:32,960 --> 00:07:34,900
But for things that make shells,

191
00:07:34,900 --> 00:07:37,840
whether it is a pteropod like
I'm gonna talk to you about

192
00:07:37,840 --> 00:07:40,473
or actually a calcifying plant,

193
00:07:41,842 --> 00:07:43,900
changes in calcification
respond to this pH.

194
00:07:43,900 --> 00:07:46,250
So this reduction in carbonate ions

195
00:07:46,250 --> 00:07:48,990
makes it harder to grow shells,

196
00:07:48,990 --> 00:07:51,880
or it can actually cause
those shells to dissolve.

197
00:07:51,880 --> 00:07:52,960
So some things can be good

198
00:07:52,960 --> 00:07:55,160
and some things can be
bad at the same time.

199
00:07:56,440 --> 00:07:58,500
These changes, particularly in pH,

200
00:07:58,500 --> 00:08:01,707
can also modify ion
balances in the system.

201
00:08:01,707 --> 00:08:04,540
And this affects diffusion
gradients and protein pumps,

202
00:08:04,540 --> 00:08:05,800
because everything in the ocean

203
00:08:05,800 --> 00:08:09,680
is trying actually to
stay at the same level

204
00:08:09,680 --> 00:08:12,670
no matter what their environment
is in relationship to pH.

205
00:08:12,670 --> 00:08:14,650
So this is called homeostasis,

206
00:08:14,650 --> 00:08:17,380
animals work really hard
to stay exactly the same.

207
00:08:17,380 --> 00:08:18,870
To give you a sense of this,

208
00:08:18,870 --> 00:08:23,070
human beings stay in a very,
very narrow window of pH.

209
00:08:23,070 --> 00:08:27,260
If your internal pH goes
up by 0.1 or down by 0.1,

210
00:08:27,260 --> 00:08:28,820
you're immediately in the hospital.

211
00:08:28,820 --> 00:08:31,000
Remember, the ocean's
already changed by 0.1,

212
00:08:31,000 --> 00:08:33,080
that's just to give you some context.

213
00:08:33,080 --> 00:08:37,000
And the reason this is is
that everything in your system

214
00:08:37,000 --> 00:08:39,360
is designed to work at a particular pH.

215
00:08:39,360 --> 00:08:41,630
All the proteins as they
fold inside your body

216
00:08:41,630 --> 00:08:43,760
fold at a particular pH level.

217
00:08:43,760 --> 00:08:47,330
As the pH changes they start
to shift in their confirmation,

218
00:08:47,330 --> 00:08:49,630
and that might mean that
they don't work as well.

219
00:08:49,630 --> 00:08:51,760
And so enzymes or proteins,

220
00:08:51,760 --> 00:08:53,470
your muscles are made out of proteins,

221
00:08:53,470 --> 00:08:55,460
most cellular structures
have proteins in them.

222
00:08:55,460 --> 00:08:57,780
And in fact, a way to
help think about this

223
00:08:57,780 --> 00:09:01,540
is that we cook sometimes
with acid, with changes in pH.

224
00:09:01,540 --> 00:09:02,680
If you've ever made ceviche

225
00:09:02,680 --> 00:09:04,900
where you just pour lemon
juice on top of fish,

226
00:09:04,900 --> 00:09:06,570
that actually causes the proteins

227
00:09:06,570 --> 00:09:10,400
to change in confirmation so
much that we can eat it raw

228
00:09:10,400 --> 00:09:13,763
because it's just a pH
cooking of the proteins.

229
00:09:15,010 --> 00:09:17,050
Now, the kind of changes
that I'm talking about

230
00:09:17,050 --> 00:09:19,170
are not nearly that profound,

231
00:09:19,170 --> 00:09:21,660
they're not putting
lemon juice in the ocean.

232
00:09:21,660 --> 00:09:24,640
And in fact, the ocean is going to remain

233
00:09:24,640 --> 00:09:26,650
slightly basic, slightly alkali,

234
00:09:26,650 --> 00:09:27,970
'cause that's its natural condition,

235
00:09:27,970 --> 00:09:32,283
but these shifts do modify
how organisms function.

236
00:09:33,480 --> 00:09:35,030
And so the big picture question

237
00:09:35,030 --> 00:09:37,730
is when we think about ecosystem function.

238
00:09:37,730 --> 00:09:38,740
My screen just went black,

239
00:09:38,740 --> 00:09:42,020
which means I have to stop
my share, start it again.

240
00:09:42,020 --> 00:09:43,110
Apologies everyone,

241
00:09:43,110 --> 00:09:46,290
my computer sometimes
does not love things.

242
00:09:46,290 --> 00:09:48,650
What this means for ecosystems

243
00:09:48,650 --> 00:09:50,840
is that the stress can seriously damage

244
00:09:50,840 --> 00:09:53,710
the resources that we rely
on from the ocean system.

245
00:09:53,710 --> 00:09:55,510
So it can disrupt food webs,

246
00:09:55,510 --> 00:09:58,480
the things that little
plants, little animals

247
00:09:58,480 --> 00:10:01,150
lead to the foods that you and I consume.

248
00:10:01,150 --> 00:10:02,970
We can have direct loss of fisheries.

249
00:10:02,970 --> 00:10:04,930
A number of fisheries in the Gulf of Maine

250
00:10:04,930 --> 00:10:08,000
are based on calcifying organisms.

251
00:10:08,000 --> 00:10:10,120
These are the sea
scallops, the bay scallops,

252
00:10:10,120 --> 00:10:11,830
all the clams, all the mussels.

253
00:10:11,830 --> 00:10:14,080
All these things that
have shells, shellfish,

254
00:10:15,150 --> 00:10:18,250
are affected in multiple
ways by ocean acidification.

255
00:10:18,250 --> 00:10:20,660
And finally, one of the places
that we think about things

256
00:10:20,660 --> 00:10:22,570
is loss of reef tourism and protection.

257
00:10:22,570 --> 00:10:26,300
Now reef tourism can be both coral reefs,

258
00:10:26,300 --> 00:10:28,820
but also there's the
protection that we get

259
00:10:28,820 --> 00:10:30,250
from like oyster reefs as well.

260
00:10:30,250 --> 00:10:31,760
So there's protection from storms

261
00:10:31,760 --> 00:10:35,800
as well as just the beauty
of a more diverse habitat

262
00:10:35,800 --> 00:10:37,910
that people can go out and see.

263
00:10:37,910 --> 00:10:39,600
So ocean acidification is known to affect

264
00:10:39,600 --> 00:10:41,863
these sorts of things
and all over the world.

265
00:10:43,620 --> 00:10:46,330
What I was specifically trying to do

266
00:10:46,330 --> 00:10:50,570
is look at where animals
are found in relationship

267
00:10:51,520 --> 00:10:55,350
to variations in natural
environmental conditions,

268
00:10:55,350 --> 00:10:57,190
figure out how animals respond

269
00:10:57,190 --> 00:10:58,880
to those environmental conditions,

270
00:10:58,880 --> 00:10:59,740
and use this to see

271
00:10:59,740 --> 00:11:02,183
if I can predict future ocean conditions.

272
00:11:03,490 --> 00:11:05,520
And the organisms that I
work with are these guys,

273
00:11:05,520 --> 00:11:08,140
these are the thecosome
or shelled pteropods.

274
00:11:08,140 --> 00:11:10,310
So they're related to snails.

275
00:11:10,310 --> 00:11:11,570
Yes, think snails,

276
00:11:11,570 --> 00:11:14,830
like creeping foot along the
ground with the spiral shell.

277
00:11:14,830 --> 00:11:16,660
And if you look at the
organism in the upper left,

278
00:11:16,660 --> 00:11:19,170
you can see how that
could be kinda snail-like.

279
00:11:19,170 --> 00:11:21,240
But what they did is when
they were in the ocean,

280
00:11:21,240 --> 00:11:23,440
they evolved so that
their foot split into two

281
00:11:23,440 --> 00:11:24,810
and they have two wings that they flap.

282
00:11:24,810 --> 00:11:27,000
You should absolutely go
look for these guys online,

283
00:11:27,000 --> 00:11:30,300
there's some amazing
videos on Twitterverse

284
00:11:30,300 --> 00:11:32,960
of pteropod swimming, stellar!

285
00:11:32,960 --> 00:11:33,793
And they also started

286
00:11:33,793 --> 00:11:35,700
changing their morphology, their shape.

287
00:11:35,700 --> 00:11:37,930
They have these like, big,

288
00:11:37,930 --> 00:11:40,920
big, so plankton size,
centimeter-long shells

289
00:11:41,770 --> 00:11:44,180
that are very delicate and see-through.

290
00:11:44,180 --> 00:11:46,060
And these shells are the reason

291
00:11:46,060 --> 00:11:47,560
I'm so interested in studying them.

292
00:11:47,560 --> 00:11:50,220
These shells are made
out of calcium carbonate,

293
00:11:50,220 --> 00:11:53,603
and calcium carbonate is
affected by acidification.

294
00:11:55,660 --> 00:11:58,530
In particular, the type of
shell that these guys have

295
00:11:58,530 --> 00:11:59,650
is called aragonite,

296
00:11:59,650 --> 00:12:01,750
which means it's more dissolvable

297
00:12:01,750 --> 00:12:03,690
than the kind of calcium carbonate

298
00:12:03,690 --> 00:12:05,730
that's in most shellfish, okay?

299
00:12:05,730 --> 00:12:08,710
So it dissolves more easily

300
00:12:08,710 --> 00:12:10,410
than an oyster shell, for example.

301
00:12:10,410 --> 00:12:12,240
They tend to live in vulnerable places,

302
00:12:12,240 --> 00:12:14,280
such as the open ocean and polar regions.

303
00:12:14,280 --> 00:12:16,870
And we know that they're
relatively ecologically important

304
00:12:16,870 --> 00:12:20,350
in that they're a prey item
for a lot of fish and seabirds,

305
00:12:20,350 --> 00:12:23,820
they're a grazer of
that initial plant life,

306
00:12:23,820 --> 00:12:25,620
and they move a lot of
carbon through the system,

307
00:12:25,620 --> 00:12:28,350
and that's important for our understanding

308
00:12:28,350 --> 00:12:32,123
of how climate change will be
affected by their sensitivity.

309
00:12:33,440 --> 00:12:36,690
So to study them what
I do is I capture them

310
00:12:36,690 --> 00:12:38,620
and then I expose them to stress.

311
00:12:38,620 --> 00:12:40,610
And what I have here is, actually,

312
00:12:40,610 --> 00:12:43,500
this is a teeny tiny little
pteropod, here's his wings.

313
00:12:43,500 --> 00:12:45,560
He's inside of a glass container

314
00:12:45,560 --> 00:12:48,740
where I'm measuring how much
his oxygen changes over time.

315
00:12:48,740 --> 00:12:50,950
And we use oxygen because
that's a measurement,

316
00:12:50,950 --> 00:12:54,540
sort of the metabolic broad
scale level of, how ya doin'?

317
00:12:54,540 --> 00:12:56,950
So metabolic rate gives me a sense

318
00:12:56,950 --> 00:12:59,590
of overall energy consumption
that an animal is doing.

319
00:12:59,590 --> 00:13:02,680
If it's stressed, it might
start hyperventilating

320
00:13:02,680 --> 00:13:04,360
or it might completely freak out and die,

321
00:13:04,360 --> 00:13:06,000
'cause when you die you stop breathing.

322
00:13:06,000 --> 00:13:07,830
So I can use oxygen consumption

323
00:13:07,830 --> 00:13:09,580
to see how these animals are doing.

324
00:13:10,620 --> 00:13:12,770
Ah, yes, here that is said.

325
00:13:12,770 --> 00:13:14,770
The thing about oxygen consumption though,

326
00:13:14,770 --> 00:13:16,950
is that it really is related

327
00:13:16,950 --> 00:13:19,400
to a bunch of different components

328
00:13:19,400 --> 00:13:21,910
that are all going on at the same time.

329
00:13:21,910 --> 00:13:24,360
Oxygen consumption's
kinda like your paycheck.

330
00:13:24,360 --> 00:13:26,220
You have a certain amount of money

331
00:13:26,220 --> 00:13:28,090
but you could be using
it on different things,

332
00:13:28,090 --> 00:13:30,380
rent, food, whatever, all
these different parts,

333
00:13:30,380 --> 00:13:32,090
calcification, reproduction.

334
00:13:32,090 --> 00:13:33,400
And it's also contingent

335
00:13:33,400 --> 00:13:35,430
upon how much food you have available,

336
00:13:35,430 --> 00:13:37,470
'cause you can only burn so much energy

337
00:13:37,470 --> 00:13:39,940
if you don't have energy, food, to burn.

338
00:13:39,940 --> 00:13:41,380
So these two pieces play together

339
00:13:41,380 --> 00:13:42,960
and we'll come back to this

340
00:13:42,960 --> 00:13:44,510
a little bit later in the talk.

341
00:13:46,100 --> 00:13:47,540
Another really critical thing

342
00:13:47,540 --> 00:13:49,190
that we've used these organisms for

343
00:13:49,190 --> 00:13:50,940
is we've looked at their shell quality.

344
00:13:50,940 --> 00:13:53,110
I've told you that their
shell's made out of aragonite

345
00:13:53,110 --> 00:13:55,840
and that it responds to acidification.

346
00:13:55,840 --> 00:13:57,910
This is a high resolution

347
00:13:57,910 --> 00:14:00,260
scanning electron micrograph of something.

348
00:14:00,260 --> 00:14:02,180
So this is a teeny tiny bug

349
00:14:02,180 --> 00:14:04,790
that's, well, less than a centimeter long,

350
00:14:04,790 --> 00:14:07,180
and we've zoomed really,
really close in on it

351
00:14:07,180 --> 00:14:08,013
and we're looking at

352
00:14:08,013 --> 00:14:09,800
every single structure inside the shell.

353
00:14:09,800 --> 00:14:11,260
And these are super helpful for us

354
00:14:11,260 --> 00:14:13,120
seeing exact patterns of dissolution,

355
00:14:13,120 --> 00:14:15,590
but it is time and money intensive.

356
00:14:15,590 --> 00:14:17,010
So one of the things that we've done

357
00:14:17,010 --> 00:14:19,200
is we've tried to use just very simple,

358
00:14:19,200 --> 00:14:21,410
put a bug in a Petri dish,

359
00:14:21,410 --> 00:14:24,050
bug in this term is just zooplankton,

360
00:14:24,050 --> 00:14:25,100
shine light through it

361
00:14:25,100 --> 00:14:26,970
and see how much light
comes through the shell.

362
00:14:26,970 --> 00:14:30,210
And you can see that if you
catch animals from the wild

363
00:14:30,210 --> 00:14:32,800
after three and a half
days of being exposed

364
00:14:32,800 --> 00:14:35,020
to different levels of acidification,

365
00:14:35,020 --> 00:14:38,670
you can see visually the
differences in the shell.

366
00:14:38,670 --> 00:14:41,830
So transparent shells is
what animals look like wild,

367
00:14:41,830 --> 00:14:44,963
and over time they start
getting more opaque.

368
00:14:46,910 --> 00:14:48,450
And you'll see these numbers

369
00:14:48,450 --> 00:14:50,510
continuously throughout the talk,

370
00:14:50,510 --> 00:14:55,030
400 parts per million is on
average the current state

371
00:14:55,030 --> 00:14:58,823
of CO2 dissolved in the Gulf of Maine.

372
00:15:00,070 --> 00:15:05,070
800 and 1200 are giving us sort
of future ocean predictions

373
00:15:05,170 --> 00:15:07,430
based on different assumptions

374
00:15:07,430 --> 00:15:09,530
about how human behavior
is going to change.

375
00:15:09,530 --> 00:15:14,530
So these are realistic numbers
for the next 100, 200 years.

376
00:15:16,070 --> 00:15:18,880
So other things that we can do
is we can use dyes or stains.

377
00:15:18,880 --> 00:15:21,220
And we know that this
particular group of organisms

378
00:15:21,220 --> 00:15:25,450
responds relatively
quickly with their shell

379
00:15:25,450 --> 00:15:28,480
when they're exposed to acidification.

380
00:15:28,480 --> 00:15:30,990
And the work that I'm specifically
going to be talking about

381
00:15:30,990 --> 00:15:32,690
is what I did when I
was down at Woods Hole,

382
00:15:32,690 --> 00:15:34,150
so here's Woods Hole.

383
00:15:34,150 --> 00:15:36,440
There's Boston for reference, The Cape.

384
00:15:36,440 --> 00:15:38,920
And what we were doing
is we were interested

385
00:15:38,920 --> 00:15:41,900
in understanding coastal
acidification in the region.

386
00:15:41,900 --> 00:15:44,500
And the reason that we did
this experimental design

387
00:15:44,500 --> 00:15:45,600
is that getting out here

388
00:15:45,600 --> 00:15:49,540
into the deep basin is relatively easy.

389
00:15:49,540 --> 00:15:52,480
It's accessible, there's
pteropods year-round,

390
00:15:52,480 --> 00:15:55,040
and they can provide an indicator group

391
00:15:55,040 --> 00:15:57,430
for ocean acidification
stress in the region,

392
00:15:57,430 --> 00:15:59,750
and they are actually
ecologically important

393
00:15:59,750 --> 00:16:00,950
for the local fisheries.

394
00:16:01,870 --> 00:16:03,450
And so this was at one
of our sampling sites.

395
00:16:03,450 --> 00:16:08,010
We also sampled sort of closer to P-town,

396
00:16:08,010 --> 00:16:09,390
and I'm going to make reference

397
00:16:09,390 --> 00:16:12,910
to the coastal mooring, that's
here, datasets that show us

398
00:16:12,910 --> 00:16:15,110
sort of long term trends
in ocean acidification.

399
00:16:15,110 --> 00:16:16,160
In fact, that's right here.

400
00:16:16,160 --> 00:16:19,380
So what you're seeing
right here is over time,

401
00:16:19,380 --> 00:16:24,120
there's a fantastic mooring
that takes CO2 values

402
00:16:24,120 --> 00:16:26,147
from the surface water
in the Gulf of Maine,

403
00:16:26,147 --> 00:16:29,120
and so these are the actual
values that are going on,

404
00:16:29,120 --> 00:16:31,790
and you start to see these patterns.

405
00:16:31,790 --> 00:16:33,450
And what you should recognize

406
00:16:33,450 --> 00:16:37,373
is that are variations
in the CO2 in the region.

407
00:16:38,500 --> 00:16:41,760
Just for context,
pre-industrial levels of CO2

408
00:16:41,760 --> 00:16:44,310
is about 250 parts per million.

409
00:16:44,310 --> 00:16:45,660
So during certain seasons,

410
00:16:45,660 --> 00:16:47,280
specifically during the spring bloom,

411
00:16:47,280 --> 00:16:51,990
we see pre-industrial
levels of CO2 in the region.

412
00:16:51,990 --> 00:16:54,250
And then during some seasons,

413
00:16:54,250 --> 00:16:56,223
specifically the winter time,

414
00:16:57,270 --> 00:17:00,010
we see very high CO2 levels.

415
00:17:00,010 --> 00:17:04,260
Now this relates to just
normal seasonal annual cycles

416
00:17:04,260 --> 00:17:09,260
with trees dying and the
spring growth in New England.

417
00:17:09,860 --> 00:17:13,760
So I say that we see pre-industrial
levels in the spring.

418
00:17:13,760 --> 00:17:15,920
If we went back to pre-industrial times,

419
00:17:15,920 --> 00:17:18,210
we would see super low
levels in the spring

420
00:17:18,210 --> 00:17:19,410
and high levels in the winter,

421
00:17:19,410 --> 00:17:23,400
so there's this natural
oscillation within the region.

422
00:17:23,400 --> 00:17:25,770
And on top of that we
have ocean acidification,

423
00:17:25,770 --> 00:17:28,310
which is kind of picking
up the notch every year.

424
00:17:28,310 --> 00:17:30,530
But having this natural variability

425
00:17:30,530 --> 00:17:32,270
can sort of allow us to see

426
00:17:32,270 --> 00:17:36,340
how does physiological
variability that already exists

427
00:17:36,340 --> 00:17:37,810
affect the animals in this system.

428
00:17:37,810 --> 00:17:40,730
So this system has a
population of pteropod

429
00:17:40,730 --> 00:17:43,600
that is adapted or acclimated

430
00:17:43,600 --> 00:17:47,350
to higher or lower CO2
during different seasons.

431
00:17:47,350 --> 00:17:50,730
So the study was, on the
backdrop of this variability,

432
00:17:50,730 --> 00:17:52,833
looking at pteropods in the Gulf of Maine.

433
00:17:54,100 --> 00:17:55,090
So these are some

434
00:17:55,090 --> 00:17:58,200
of the big ocean acidification
topics right now,

435
00:17:58,200 --> 00:18:01,380
understanding how OA interacts
with other stressors,

436
00:18:01,380 --> 00:18:04,100
understanding how natural
environmental variability

437
00:18:04,100 --> 00:18:05,220
affects organisms,

438
00:18:05,220 --> 00:18:07,670
trying to understand
adaptation and acclimation,

439
00:18:07,670 --> 00:18:08,540
and then figuring out

440
00:18:08,540 --> 00:18:11,590
which organisms are the most sensitive.

441
00:18:11,590 --> 00:18:12,810
And that's a big question,

442
00:18:12,810 --> 00:18:15,680
which species, which processes,
and which life stages.

443
00:18:15,680 --> 00:18:17,490
And then you always
wanna get down to like,

444
00:18:17,490 --> 00:18:18,690
okay, so what's that mean for us?

445
00:18:18,690 --> 00:18:20,840
How's that changing
the ecosystem function?

446
00:18:22,320 --> 00:18:25,850
So, what we would do is
we'd go out on a ship

447
00:18:25,850 --> 00:18:29,050
and we would get the seasonal
chemistry and animal sampling

448
00:18:29,050 --> 00:18:30,560
looking at sort of a snapshot of,

449
00:18:30,560 --> 00:18:31,600
okay, what are the animals doing

450
00:18:31,600 --> 00:18:34,030
in the wild at any given moment?

451
00:18:34,030 --> 00:18:35,623
We would take chemistry
samples using this,

452
00:18:35,623 --> 00:18:37,570
this is a CTD,

453
00:18:37,570 --> 00:18:40,220
which is a conductivity,
temperature, and depth meter.

454
00:18:40,220 --> 00:18:41,710
We'd throw it over the water,

455
00:18:41,710 --> 00:18:44,080
do a profile of what's
going on in the water,

456
00:18:44,080 --> 00:18:46,040
bring back water to then get

457
00:18:46,040 --> 00:18:48,380
really fine resolution
carbonate chemistry,

458
00:18:48,380 --> 00:18:51,100
understand really what's
happening with the acidification.

459
00:18:51,100 --> 00:18:53,737
Then we would put this
net system in the water

460
00:18:53,737 --> 00:18:55,920
and bring back a whole bunch of animals,

461
00:18:55,920 --> 00:18:59,380
figuring out where they
lived, at which depth,

462
00:18:59,380 --> 00:19:01,930
and then we'd bring
thousands of animals back

463
00:19:01,930 --> 00:19:05,680
in these trash cans with little handles

464
00:19:05,680 --> 00:19:08,890
back to the lab and see how
their physiology responded.

465
00:19:08,890 --> 00:19:11,650
So we did a number of cruises
out in the Gulf of Maine.

466
00:19:11,650 --> 00:19:12,730
We were looking, again,

467
00:19:12,730 --> 00:19:15,610
at oxygen consumption rate, shell quality,

468
00:19:15,610 --> 00:19:17,600
I was also doing some
gene expression as well

469
00:19:17,600 --> 00:19:20,410
to really figure out which
processes were going up and down.

470
00:19:20,410 --> 00:19:21,690
That kind of let me get at like,

471
00:19:21,690 --> 00:19:23,763
what are you spending your paycheck on?

472
00:19:26,280 --> 00:19:29,096
And so what I wanna show you is, first,

473
00:19:29,096 --> 00:19:30,710
these are distributional maps, okay?

474
00:19:30,710 --> 00:19:34,070
So on your up and down
axis you have depth,

475
00:19:34,070 --> 00:19:35,220
so we're starting at the surface

476
00:19:35,220 --> 00:19:37,570
and then moving down into the deep basin.

477
00:19:37,570 --> 00:19:40,800
And then each of the different
colors is a different season.

478
00:19:40,800 --> 00:19:43,980
They're color coded to
represent winter in blue,

479
00:19:43,980 --> 00:19:47,680
spring bloom in green,
sort of summer in orange,

480
00:19:47,680 --> 00:19:49,990
and then fall in purple.

481
00:19:49,990 --> 00:19:52,010
And so this is over three years.

482
00:19:52,010 --> 00:19:54,020
And what we tend to see
is that these animals

483
00:19:54,020 --> 00:19:56,330
generally are found in the surface water.

484
00:19:56,330 --> 00:19:57,920
They're very abundant,

485
00:19:57,920 --> 00:20:00,730
particularly in the spring bloom,

486
00:20:00,730 --> 00:20:04,600
but again, in the fall, they
tend to have a peak as well,

487
00:20:04,600 --> 00:20:07,270
although the timing of it
shifted from year to year.

488
00:20:07,270 --> 00:20:12,270
So, importantly, they're very
rarely found below 150 meters.

489
00:20:13,650 --> 00:20:16,890
The smaller individuals that
are responsible for these peaks

490
00:20:16,890 --> 00:20:19,010
tended to be associated with what we think

491
00:20:19,010 --> 00:20:21,710
are reproduction events in
the spring and late summer.

492
00:20:23,340 --> 00:20:25,300
Now this chart, on this one,

493
00:20:25,300 --> 00:20:28,850
I've taken time on the bottom axis.

494
00:20:28,850 --> 00:20:29,940
And then what we have here

495
00:20:29,940 --> 00:20:33,720
is oxygen consumption on the Y axis.

496
00:20:33,720 --> 00:20:35,490
And this it's time on the bottom axis

497
00:20:35,490 --> 00:20:40,300
and that shell transparency,
again, on the Y axis.

498
00:20:40,300 --> 00:20:42,550
And so we see differences,

499
00:20:42,550 --> 00:20:44,280
whenever you see a different letter,

500
00:20:44,280 --> 00:20:46,200
that means they're statistically
different grouping.

501
00:20:46,200 --> 00:20:48,500
So this is very different from this.

502
00:20:48,500 --> 00:20:50,780
These two are somewhat related,

503
00:20:50,780 --> 00:20:52,700
but neither is related to this.

504
00:20:52,700 --> 00:20:55,200
So, what I find from this dataset

505
00:20:55,200 --> 00:20:59,370
is we have higher metabolism

506
00:20:59,370 --> 00:21:02,220
during periods when we
have more fluorescence,

507
00:21:02,220 --> 00:21:03,960
and fluorescence is one of
the ways that we measure

508
00:21:03,960 --> 00:21:05,810
how much plant life is in the water.

509
00:21:05,810 --> 00:21:07,770
So if these guys have more food,

510
00:21:07,770 --> 00:21:10,150
they have a higher metabolic rate.

511
00:21:10,150 --> 00:21:12,930
Their shell quality does not
relate well to metabolic rate,

512
00:21:12,930 --> 00:21:15,530
it actually relates to saturation level.

513
00:21:15,530 --> 00:21:18,010
Remember I explained to you
that saturation level is,

514
00:21:18,010 --> 00:21:20,460
on one side shells dissolve,

515
00:21:20,460 --> 00:21:23,090
on the other side shells remain solid,

516
00:21:23,090 --> 00:21:25,860
and that dividing line
is at the number one.

517
00:21:25,860 --> 00:21:27,670
So if you're above one,

518
00:21:27,670 --> 00:21:29,870
canonically you're supposed to
still be able to have shells.

519
00:21:29,870 --> 00:21:30,960
But despite the fact

520
00:21:30,960 --> 00:21:34,140
that all these saturation
states are well above one,

521
00:21:34,140 --> 00:21:37,400
we see that when we have
the lowest saturation state,

522
00:21:37,400 --> 00:21:40,530
we have the lowest shell quality, okay?

523
00:21:40,530 --> 00:21:42,990
So there is something
happening to these shells

524
00:21:42,990 --> 00:21:45,510
even when they're not at
a lower saturation state,

525
00:21:45,510 --> 00:21:46,480
so they're responding

526
00:21:46,480 --> 00:21:48,550
to the natural variation
in the environment.

527
00:21:48,550 --> 00:21:49,840
These are wild-caught animals,

528
00:21:49,840 --> 00:21:51,590
I've done nothing to mess them up,

529
00:21:51,590 --> 00:21:54,510
and we see these changes
in their physiology

530
00:21:54,510 --> 00:21:56,210
and their shell quality over time.

531
00:21:57,860 --> 00:21:59,640
To try to get at this a little bit better,

532
00:21:59,640 --> 00:22:01,390
what we would do is we
would take the animals

533
00:22:01,390 --> 00:22:03,780
and we would put them
into these bubbling tanks.

534
00:22:03,780 --> 00:22:06,970
So there'd be like hundreds
of pteropods in here,

535
00:22:06,970 --> 00:22:08,970
I'm bubbling CO2 in here

536
00:22:08,970 --> 00:22:10,470
and they're swimming around happily

537
00:22:10,470 --> 00:22:13,490
being fed every other day phytoplankton.

538
00:22:13,490 --> 00:22:15,880
And again, I would keep
them there for two weeks,

539
00:22:15,880 --> 00:22:17,480
I would measure their oxygen consumption,

540
00:22:17,480 --> 00:22:18,950
their shell quality, and gene expression.

541
00:22:18,950 --> 00:22:20,270
And I was looking at the response

542
00:22:20,270 --> 00:22:21,200
during the different seasons

543
00:22:21,200 --> 00:22:23,610
to see if they responded
to them, different seasons.

544
00:22:23,610 --> 00:22:25,240
Basically, the question is like,

545
00:22:25,240 --> 00:22:28,350
if you're in January and your
shell quality is already low

546
00:22:28,350 --> 00:22:30,100
and someone throws you into high CO2,

547
00:22:30,100 --> 00:22:31,930
are you like, "oh my God,
I can't deal with this!

548
00:22:31,930 --> 00:22:33,302
I've just been dealing
with this in the while,

549
00:22:33,302 --> 00:22:34,135
this is the end of the world!"

550
00:22:34,135 --> 00:22:36,280
Or are you like, "okay, yeah, whatever,

551
00:22:36,280 --> 00:22:38,630
this is normal for this season,

552
00:22:38,630 --> 00:22:39,660
hit me with another one."

553
00:22:39,660 --> 00:22:42,700
So, I wanna know what
the animals are feeling

554
00:22:42,700 --> 00:22:45,810
in response to this natural variation,

555
00:22:45,810 --> 00:22:47,273
then an additional stress.

556
00:22:49,840 --> 00:22:51,510
This is how we do the carbonate chemistry,

557
00:22:51,510 --> 00:22:53,570
and the take-home from
this is that you have to do

558
00:22:53,570 --> 00:22:54,930
a whole bunch of different measurements

559
00:22:54,930 --> 00:22:56,523
to get these kinds of experiments right.

560
00:22:56,523 --> 00:22:58,080
What I really want you to see here

561
00:22:58,080 --> 00:23:01,210
is that I have that ambient around 400.

562
00:23:01,210 --> 00:23:03,670
What's important is the saturation state

563
00:23:03,670 --> 00:23:05,910
and my low treatment,
my ambient treatment,

564
00:23:05,910 --> 00:23:07,390
is super saturated, okay?

565
00:23:07,390 --> 00:23:11,210
So these shells should
not be bothered by CO2.

566
00:23:11,210 --> 00:23:13,780
And the middle treatment, which was 800,

567
00:23:13,780 --> 00:23:15,330
double what we currently see,

568
00:23:15,330 --> 00:23:18,990
you're right at saturation,
exactly on the line pretty much.

569
00:23:18,990 --> 00:23:22,150
And then in the 1200, you're
definitely undersaturated.

570
00:23:22,150 --> 00:23:24,400
So this gives us three
different conditions

571
00:23:24,400 --> 00:23:28,510
under which we can understand
what the animals experience

572
00:23:28,510 --> 00:23:29,760
when they experience CO2.

573
00:23:31,940 --> 00:23:33,810
This is a different way
to look at respiration.

574
00:23:33,810 --> 00:23:36,240
I put saturation state
here on the bottom line,

575
00:23:36,240 --> 00:23:38,910
'cause it varied a little bit
between the different months.

576
00:23:38,910 --> 00:23:40,470
The months are seen here,

577
00:23:40,470 --> 00:23:44,660
so January's in blue, spring
bloom, summer, fall, right?

578
00:23:44,660 --> 00:23:46,970
Okay, respiration rate is here.

579
00:23:46,970 --> 00:23:48,630
What I think what's important to notice

580
00:23:48,630 --> 00:23:51,260
is that for all of the months,

581
00:23:51,260 --> 00:23:55,040
no matter what I did to them
with aragonite saturation state

582
00:23:55,040 --> 00:23:57,520
their metabolism stayed exactly the same,

583
00:23:57,520 --> 00:24:00,920
except during the spring bloom.

584
00:24:00,920 --> 00:24:03,340
So they had a higher metabolism in April

585
00:24:03,340 --> 00:24:05,690
and it was associated
with responses to CO2.

586
00:24:05,690 --> 00:24:08,247
So they experienced high CO2
in April and they're like,

587
00:24:08,247 --> 00:24:09,860
"whoa, whoa, what's going on?"

588
00:24:09,860 --> 00:24:12,103
And their metabolism sped up.

589
00:24:14,340 --> 00:24:16,260
When I look at shells,

590
00:24:16,260 --> 00:24:19,647
again, here's the saturation
state on this bottom axis

591
00:24:19,647 --> 00:24:21,790
and this is that transparency here,

592
00:24:25,187 --> 00:24:27,640
what I want you to take
away from this is that,

593
00:24:27,640 --> 00:24:32,480
this is January, April, August, November,

594
00:24:32,480 --> 00:24:35,310
and then the next April,

595
00:24:35,310 --> 00:24:36,500
you have these patterns

596
00:24:36,500 --> 00:24:38,890
where the lines are pretty much the same,

597
00:24:38,890 --> 00:24:40,740
but you have very distinct differences

598
00:24:40,740 --> 00:24:42,770
in the starting shell quality.

599
00:24:42,770 --> 00:24:44,900
So in January, we already know

600
00:24:44,900 --> 00:24:48,370
that their shells are less transparent

601
00:24:48,370 --> 00:24:50,460
when they come to us from the wild,

602
00:24:50,460 --> 00:24:52,420
but the slope of the line is the same.

603
00:24:52,420 --> 00:24:56,210
So CO2 always affects
their shells the same way,

604
00:24:56,210 --> 00:24:58,883
but it's like a starting
thing that then adds.

605
00:24:59,770 --> 00:25:02,100
If we pay attention to
what happens, however long,

606
00:25:02,100 --> 00:25:04,650
this is all done after
three days of exposure.

607
00:25:04,650 --> 00:25:07,080
If we want to see what happens
when we put them in CO2

608
00:25:07,080 --> 00:25:08,750
and then track that over time,

609
00:25:08,750 --> 00:25:11,250
again, this is what they're exposed to,

610
00:25:11,250 --> 00:25:12,490
the colors in this case

611
00:25:12,490 --> 00:25:16,100
are how many days I've been exposing them.

612
00:25:16,100 --> 00:25:17,470
And I've taken January out of here

613
00:25:17,470 --> 00:25:19,370
because it just confuses the point.

614
00:25:19,370 --> 00:25:23,640
So if you keep them in just for one day,

615
00:25:26,010 --> 00:25:28,530
you don't see that much
of a response to CO2.

616
00:25:28,530 --> 00:25:29,790
After three days,

617
00:25:29,790 --> 00:25:33,250
the more acidic treatments
you start to see

618
00:25:33,250 --> 00:25:35,740
that their shell quality
decreases the longer it goes,

619
00:25:35,740 --> 00:25:37,280
the longer it goes, the longer it goes.

620
00:25:37,280 --> 00:25:38,660
So the longer you expose them,

621
00:25:38,660 --> 00:25:41,123
the worse their shell condition is.

622
00:25:43,020 --> 00:25:47,050
So with that information, I
then wanted to try to switch to,

623
00:25:47,050 --> 00:25:49,540
okay, I know that their respiration

624
00:25:49,540 --> 00:25:50,670
doesn't seem to be changing

625
00:25:50,670 --> 00:25:52,440
very much in relationship to CO2,

626
00:25:52,440 --> 00:25:54,150
their shells definitely do.

627
00:25:54,150 --> 00:25:55,580
But, what are other things that I think

628
00:25:55,580 --> 00:25:56,750
could be super sensitive?

629
00:25:56,750 --> 00:25:58,590
And what I thought was
likely to be the case

630
00:25:58,590 --> 00:26:00,440
is that that the early stages,

631
00:26:00,440 --> 00:26:03,440
when these animals are first
starting to make a shell,

632
00:26:03,440 --> 00:26:04,300
that that life stage

633
00:26:04,300 --> 00:26:05,710
is probably going to be pretty sensitive.

634
00:26:05,710 --> 00:26:07,750
And we know this from
other organisms as well,

635
00:26:07,750 --> 00:26:08,940
but I wanted to get it quantitated.

636
00:26:08,940 --> 00:26:11,780
So this is a super-baby pteropod.

637
00:26:11,780 --> 00:26:13,370
What we've done is we've stained

638
00:26:14,870 --> 00:26:16,900
where it first starts making its shell.

639
00:26:16,900 --> 00:26:19,590
So this blue area is its shell field,

640
00:26:19,590 --> 00:26:22,310
it's about trying to
make calcium carbonate.

641
00:26:22,310 --> 00:26:25,210
And this is a little bit
later, this is another stain.

642
00:26:25,210 --> 00:26:27,440
So this is the stage where we started

643
00:26:27,440 --> 00:26:31,140
putting these animals in
CO2 and seeing what happens.

644
00:26:31,140 --> 00:26:33,770
And what we really wanted to
see was what's their survival,

645
00:26:33,770 --> 00:26:35,590
their development, and their stage.

646
00:26:35,590 --> 00:26:37,040
'Cause as these organisms
development develop,

647
00:26:37,040 --> 00:26:39,590
they change into new things as they go,

648
00:26:39,590 --> 00:26:43,320
they start out in one shape
and they move to other shapes.

649
00:26:43,320 --> 00:26:45,820
And so this is duration of the experiment

650
00:26:45,820 --> 00:26:47,840
and then here's the percent survival.

651
00:26:47,840 --> 00:26:49,990
Blue here is that ambient treatment,

652
00:26:49,990 --> 00:26:50,823
here's this medium treatment,

653
00:26:50,823 --> 00:26:52,220
and this is the high treatment.

654
00:26:52,220 --> 00:26:57,220
So on day one, we have, just
after one day of exposure,

655
00:26:57,950 --> 00:26:59,420
we already see a reduction

656
00:26:59,420 --> 00:27:02,890
in the survival in the highest treatment.

657
00:27:02,890 --> 00:27:06,880
They stay okay in the 800 until day two

658
00:27:06,880 --> 00:27:11,360
and then they start to see a
drop in survival that persists.

659
00:27:11,360 --> 00:27:14,960
And so by the end, these
statistics show you,

660
00:27:14,960 --> 00:27:19,040
within a time point, these are
not statistically different,

661
00:27:19,040 --> 00:27:20,720
this is statistically
different than these.

662
00:27:20,720 --> 00:27:22,280
So the letters that are the same

663
00:27:22,280 --> 00:27:24,620
mean they're the same group, okay?

664
00:27:24,620 --> 00:27:27,130
And so this happened during
two separate experiments,

665
00:27:27,130 --> 00:27:28,130
both August, November,

666
00:27:28,130 --> 00:27:31,270
and we see significantly
increased mortality

667
00:27:31,270 --> 00:27:32,323
when you have CO2.

668
00:27:33,400 --> 00:27:35,130
And added on top of that,

669
00:27:35,130 --> 00:27:36,270
remember, they're dying,

670
00:27:36,270 --> 00:27:38,510
but they're also trying
to change life stage.

671
00:27:38,510 --> 00:27:40,000
And the way to read these graphs,

672
00:27:40,000 --> 00:27:43,100
I've just put the ambient, the low level,

673
00:27:43,100 --> 00:27:44,310
and then the high level.

674
00:27:44,310 --> 00:27:47,040
The darker are the color,
the older the bug, right?

675
00:27:47,040 --> 00:27:49,650
So this is the most baby of them

676
00:27:49,650 --> 00:27:52,280
and this is sort of close to a teenager.

677
00:27:52,280 --> 00:27:53,830
Dark blue is closer to teenager.

678
00:27:53,830 --> 00:27:57,480
So what you can see is you
have a larger proportion

679
00:27:57,480 --> 00:28:00,990
of darker colors on the sixth day

680
00:28:00,990 --> 00:28:03,500
in the low-CO2 treatment, right?

681
00:28:03,500 --> 00:28:05,010
So this is the only critters

682
00:28:05,010 --> 00:28:06,330
who manage to get it to teenager,

683
00:28:06,330 --> 00:28:07,780
they got to veliger stage.

684
00:28:07,780 --> 00:28:12,060
None of these organisms
in the high CO2 treatment

685
00:28:12,060 --> 00:28:14,210
managed to make it to that next stage,

686
00:28:14,210 --> 00:28:15,990
and so that might be the point

687
00:28:15,990 --> 00:28:17,420
where we're experiencing mortality,

688
00:28:17,420 --> 00:28:22,090
is that during these shifts
you're seeing animals die.

689
00:28:22,090 --> 00:28:23,320
My screen went black again,

690
00:28:23,320 --> 00:28:25,030
so I'm gonna stop sharing for myself

691
00:28:25,030 --> 00:28:28,000
and share it again.

692
00:28:28,000 --> 00:28:29,210
Sorry about that!

693
00:28:29,210 --> 00:28:31,420
So, what we see here then

694
00:28:31,420 --> 00:28:34,010
is that not only are the animals dying,

695
00:28:34,010 --> 00:28:37,930
but they're not maturing as
they reach different life cycles

696
00:28:37,930 --> 00:28:39,330
when they're exposed to CO2.

697
00:28:41,010 --> 00:28:43,970
So if I step back and look
at all of this data together,

698
00:28:43,970 --> 00:28:47,320
we see in the wild that
their metabolic response

699
00:28:47,320 --> 00:28:50,600
seems to be tied to when we know

700
00:28:50,600 --> 00:28:52,770
they're going to make babies.

701
00:28:52,770 --> 00:28:55,950
So although we know that they're
having reproductive events

702
00:28:55,950 --> 00:28:58,700
both in the spring and in the fall,

703
00:28:58,700 --> 00:29:00,870
the biggest reproductive
event is in that spring

704
00:29:00,870 --> 00:29:05,240
when there's a whole bunch
of phytoplankton in the wild.

705
00:29:05,240 --> 00:29:07,930
And where they're located
in the water column

706
00:29:07,930 --> 00:29:10,220
is actually the best place to be

707
00:29:10,220 --> 00:29:11,800
during that reproductive event.

708
00:29:11,800 --> 00:29:13,380
Didn't show you the carbonate chemistry,

709
00:29:13,380 --> 00:29:16,940
but whenever you have low CO2,

710
00:29:16,940 --> 00:29:19,250
it's in the deep waters
or during the winter.

711
00:29:19,250 --> 00:29:21,100
That spring bloom is when we have

712
00:29:21,100 --> 00:29:22,990
that pre-industrial level of CO2.

713
00:29:22,990 --> 00:29:24,280
So they're making babies

714
00:29:24,280 --> 00:29:26,420
at the time of year that it's most likely

715
00:29:26,420 --> 00:29:28,703
that they're not gonna
experience CO2 stress.

716
00:29:30,820 --> 00:29:32,850
Their shell condition is consistently

717
00:29:32,850 --> 00:29:34,930
and distinctly influenced by CO2,

718
00:29:34,930 --> 00:29:36,910
but it does vary among the seasons,

719
00:29:36,910 --> 00:29:38,410
and that actually reflects

720
00:29:38,410 --> 00:29:40,550
the natural exposure that we saw, right?

721
00:29:40,550 --> 00:29:44,530
So we were seeing that there
was higher CO2 in the winter,

722
00:29:44,530 --> 00:29:46,100
it was a lower saturation state

723
00:29:46,100 --> 00:29:48,530
and their shells were
coming to us from the wild

724
00:29:48,530 --> 00:29:50,080
with a lower saturation state.

725
00:29:50,080 --> 00:29:52,063
And absolutely the early life stages

726
00:29:52,063 --> 00:29:53,750
were the most sensitive.

727
00:29:53,750 --> 00:29:55,490
And the thing that's important to note

728
00:29:55,490 --> 00:29:58,500
is that we don't tend to find the babies

729
00:29:58,500 --> 00:30:01,160
during the seasons when saturation state

730
00:30:01,160 --> 00:30:03,060
is naturally going to be bad for them.

731
00:30:03,060 --> 00:30:04,780
So the pteropods,

732
00:30:04,780 --> 00:30:09,240
they kind of only have babies
in the times and in the places

733
00:30:09,240 --> 00:30:11,510
that make most sense for
those babies to survive.

734
00:30:11,510 --> 00:30:14,613
Makes sense, adaptation,
natural selection.

735
00:30:15,530 --> 00:30:19,440
So, the question is, how is this helpful?

736
00:30:19,440 --> 00:30:21,563
Very few people care about pteropods.

737
00:30:21,563 --> 00:30:23,030
I know, I know, I'm a believer,

738
00:30:23,030 --> 00:30:25,150
but not everybody actually, even, like,

739
00:30:25,150 --> 00:30:27,470
I honestly didn't know
how to spell pteropods

740
00:30:27,470 --> 00:30:29,780
until the second year
of my graduate studies.

741
00:30:29,780 --> 00:30:33,180
But, what the data that
I've just showed you says

742
00:30:33,180 --> 00:30:36,350
that pteropods are really
good bioindicators.

743
00:30:36,350 --> 00:30:37,183
For a couple reasons,

744
00:30:37,183 --> 00:30:40,210
one, they show signs
of acidification stress

745
00:30:40,210 --> 00:30:41,460
before other organisms,

746
00:30:41,460 --> 00:30:43,280
and really importantly, before they die.

747
00:30:43,280 --> 00:30:44,530
Like, they're not already dead,

748
00:30:44,530 --> 00:30:48,290
they kind of like can hold
that acidification stress

749
00:30:48,290 --> 00:30:49,370
and live through it.

750
00:30:49,370 --> 00:30:51,830
And so they can be like
a document that says,

751
00:30:51,830 --> 00:30:55,040
yep, it's not been good,
but we're still holding on.

752
00:30:55,040 --> 00:30:56,360
Ah, here's the chemistry, right.

753
00:30:56,360 --> 00:30:58,370
Here, this is in the spring bloom.

754
00:30:58,370 --> 00:31:02,320
On this axis is that saturation state.

755
00:31:02,320 --> 00:31:05,440
This is the surface waters
where we tend to see the babies,

756
00:31:05,440 --> 00:31:06,700
and then in the deep waters

757
00:31:06,700 --> 00:31:09,520
is only where we see the high CO2.

758
00:31:09,520 --> 00:31:11,270
But what we have then

759
00:31:11,270 --> 00:31:14,042
is that the distribution of the animals

760
00:31:14,042 --> 00:31:17,320
is sort of designed not to be

761
00:31:17,320 --> 00:31:19,410
where acidification stress occurs.

762
00:31:19,410 --> 00:31:20,610
So things that we can do

763
00:31:20,610 --> 00:31:24,460
is now we have this animal with
a shell that we can measure

764
00:31:24,460 --> 00:31:27,100
that is pretty consistently
affected by CO2,

765
00:31:27,100 --> 00:31:30,210
and we can use chemistry thresholds

766
00:31:30,210 --> 00:31:33,470
to help us give us ideas about
things people do care about,

767
00:31:33,470 --> 00:31:35,683
things like food species.

768
00:31:36,660 --> 00:31:37,680
What's critical, though,

769
00:31:37,680 --> 00:31:39,940
is that that when and
where matters, right?

770
00:31:39,940 --> 00:31:42,580
So if you only have one measurement

771
00:31:42,580 --> 00:31:44,270
of the chemistry in the water column,

772
00:31:44,270 --> 00:31:49,150
it matters if you're measuring
up here or down here,

773
00:31:49,150 --> 00:31:51,960
and it also matters where
are your animals at.

774
00:31:51,960 --> 00:31:56,960
Are you a benthic scallop
or a juvenile baby scallop

775
00:31:57,330 --> 00:31:59,320
that's floating around on the surface?

776
00:31:59,320 --> 00:32:00,530
So what's really critical

777
00:32:00,530 --> 00:32:03,910
is getting that chemistry and
biology and life history stuff

778
00:32:03,910 --> 00:32:05,240
straight in your head and making sure

779
00:32:05,240 --> 00:32:07,870
that what you're measuring makes sense.

780
00:32:07,870 --> 00:32:10,430
So, things that we can do then

781
00:32:10,430 --> 00:32:14,310
is we can look at when we've
got a biological threshold,

782
00:32:14,310 --> 00:32:16,630
a point where we say, okay, at this point,

783
00:32:16,630 --> 00:32:18,540
animals are responding to stress,

784
00:32:18,540 --> 00:32:20,593
and we can look at the
chemistry data that we have.

785
00:32:20,593 --> 00:32:23,870
Now, this is a map, so this is California,

786
00:32:23,870 --> 00:32:25,330
this is the California Current System,

787
00:32:25,330 --> 00:32:29,050
and they have extensive CO2
monitoring in the water.

788
00:32:29,050 --> 00:32:30,560
And what you can do is you can say,

789
00:32:30,560 --> 00:32:35,560
okay, we've discovered that
pteropods after five days

790
00:32:36,180 --> 00:32:41,170
respond to an aragonite
saturation state of 1.5.

791
00:32:41,170 --> 00:32:42,180
And we've actually done this.

792
00:32:42,180 --> 00:32:44,400
So all the pteropod
researchers got together

793
00:32:44,400 --> 00:32:46,030
and we published a paper where we said,

794
00:32:46,030 --> 00:32:47,900
okay, we have all this
data about pteropods,

795
00:32:47,900 --> 00:32:50,190
when can we see some shell dissolution?

796
00:32:50,190 --> 00:32:53,140
And this is the threshold we decided on.

797
00:32:53,140 --> 00:32:55,737
So it's an aragonite
saturation state of 1.5

798
00:32:55,737 --> 00:32:57,260
and a duration of five days.

799
00:32:57,260 --> 00:33:01,360
So what we do is then say,
okay, here's the chemistry data.

800
00:33:01,360 --> 00:33:03,210
When would an individual

801
00:33:03,210 --> 00:33:05,160
who is in this particular block of water,

802
00:33:05,160 --> 00:33:08,450
how likely would it be
that they would experience

803
00:33:08,450 --> 00:33:10,930
those conditions and would be at risk?

804
00:33:10,930 --> 00:33:14,690
And so this is the intensity,
this is the duration,

805
00:33:14,690 --> 00:33:15,710
and this is the severity.

806
00:33:15,710 --> 00:33:17,220
So you can see places,

807
00:33:17,220 --> 00:33:19,090
specific places on a map where we say,

808
00:33:19,090 --> 00:33:22,403
oh, this actually might not
be a good place for pteropods.

809
00:33:25,650 --> 00:33:27,700
So we're trying to do something
like that in the East Coast.

810
00:33:27,700 --> 00:33:28,970
So in the past couple of years,

811
00:33:28,970 --> 00:33:29,950
even though I'm here in Bermuda,

812
00:33:29,950 --> 00:33:32,710
I kept my contacts in the Gulf of Maine.

813
00:33:32,710 --> 00:33:35,600
And what we're trying to
do is we're trying to take

814
00:33:35,600 --> 00:33:39,180
the ongoing monitoring efforts by NOAA,

815
00:33:39,180 --> 00:33:41,960
which has a long history of
doing some phenomenal work

816
00:33:41,960 --> 00:33:45,470
all along both coasts of the system,

817
00:33:45,470 --> 00:33:47,110
but the group that I'm working with

818
00:33:47,110 --> 00:33:49,760
is part of what's called
this EcoMon survey.

819
00:33:49,760 --> 00:33:51,230
So every year they go back

820
00:33:51,230 --> 00:33:52,810
and they look at certain stations,

821
00:33:52,810 --> 00:33:54,990
and originally what they were looking for

822
00:33:54,990 --> 00:33:57,380
was juvenile fish and shellfish

823
00:33:57,380 --> 00:33:59,410
and just sort of the
help of the fisheries.

824
00:33:59,410 --> 00:34:02,580
And they've implemented some
ocean acidification stations

825
00:34:02,580 --> 00:34:06,010
within this framework

826
00:34:06,010 --> 00:34:08,270
where they're measuring
the carbonate chemistry.

827
00:34:08,270 --> 00:34:09,920
And what I'm working with them on

828
00:34:09,920 --> 00:34:13,040
is that anytime they have
a pteropod collection,

829
00:34:13,040 --> 00:34:15,100
they grab me some shells

830
00:34:15,100 --> 00:34:17,880
and the carbonate
chemistry at the same time,

831
00:34:17,880 --> 00:34:21,485
and I am trying to translate
this complex method

832
00:34:21,485 --> 00:34:24,100
that I did in the lab where
I didn't have to worry

833
00:34:24,100 --> 00:34:26,460
about how much money or much
time I was putting in it,

834
00:34:26,460 --> 00:34:27,590
trying to make it simplified

835
00:34:27,590 --> 00:34:30,463
so it can be ported to whatever
NOAA lab wants to use it.

836
00:34:31,600 --> 00:34:33,390
Take those optical measurements,

837
00:34:33,390 --> 00:34:35,890
match them up with the chemistry and say,

838
00:34:35,890 --> 00:34:37,817
okay, when the chemistry's
like this, the shell does this,

839
00:34:37,817 --> 00:34:41,740
the pteropod is telling us
this about the ocean system.

840
00:34:41,740 --> 00:34:43,930
And once then I have that,

841
00:34:43,930 --> 00:34:46,450
I can go to the bigger EcoMon dataset,

842
00:34:46,450 --> 00:34:48,520
which is, this is how
many baby fish there are,

843
00:34:48,520 --> 00:34:51,420
this is how many baby lobster there are,

844
00:34:51,420 --> 00:34:54,430
this is what the bivalves look like,

845
00:34:54,430 --> 00:34:56,740
these are the things that we
might be seeing as scallops,

846
00:34:56,740 --> 00:34:58,920
and start to do the correlations,

847
00:34:58,920 --> 00:35:00,800
which doesn't prove that things
are pointing at each other,

848
00:35:00,800 --> 00:35:03,690
but you can say if a pteropod
shell looks like this,

849
00:35:03,690 --> 00:35:07,360
we tend to have more of
this or less of this.

850
00:35:07,360 --> 00:35:09,480
And if we can look for these covariates,

851
00:35:09,480 --> 00:35:12,510
we can start hopefully
making informed information

852
00:35:12,510 --> 00:35:15,130
about the things that
people actually care about.

853
00:35:15,130 --> 00:35:16,590
So right now I'm in this place

854
00:35:16,590 --> 00:35:19,460
where I'm going from a very
complicated, scientific dataset

855
00:35:19,460 --> 00:35:21,000
and trying to streamline it

856
00:35:21,000 --> 00:35:24,080
into something that people can use easily,

857
00:35:24,080 --> 00:35:26,110
people other than me,

858
00:35:26,110 --> 00:35:28,350
and not turn it into a scientific paper,

859
00:35:28,350 --> 00:35:29,720
which is a very strange thing for me.

860
00:35:29,720 --> 00:35:32,063
I'll probably make a
scientific paper as well.

861
00:35:33,240 --> 00:35:36,850
So, walking away from this
project in the Gulf of Maine,

862
00:35:36,850 --> 00:35:39,930
the things that I realized
and came to understand

863
00:35:39,930 --> 00:35:43,540
is that we really are facing
an ocean with a lot of changes.

864
00:35:43,540 --> 00:35:46,340
There are definite clear
risks to the ecosystem,

865
00:35:46,340 --> 00:35:48,290
and there's clear risk to the services

866
00:35:48,290 --> 00:35:50,040
that the ocean system provides.

867
00:35:50,040 --> 00:35:53,250
And in New England,
that's part of identity,

868
00:35:53,250 --> 00:35:55,340
that's part of our livelihood,

869
00:35:55,340 --> 00:35:58,570
and so there's cause for concern.

870
00:35:58,570 --> 00:36:00,860
However, what the data also says

871
00:36:00,860 --> 00:36:02,070
is that there are things

872
00:36:02,070 --> 00:36:06,060
that animals are doing and
responding to acidification.

873
00:36:06,060 --> 00:36:07,740
So they can change their behavior,

874
00:36:07,740 --> 00:36:10,250
they can use less energy,
they can move less,

875
00:36:10,250 --> 00:36:12,820
they can actually withstand the winter

876
00:36:12,820 --> 00:36:14,580
and come back in the spring, right?

877
00:36:14,580 --> 00:36:15,960
They can change their distribution,

878
00:36:15,960 --> 00:36:19,600
whether that's moving different
places in the water column,

879
00:36:19,600 --> 00:36:22,200
trying to avoid low CO2 in the bottom,

880
00:36:22,200 --> 00:36:24,800
or moving further north or further south.

881
00:36:24,800 --> 00:36:25,880
The big questions that we have

882
00:36:25,880 --> 00:36:28,940
is what happens to an ecosystem
if some animals leave?

883
00:36:28,940 --> 00:36:32,273
And that just takes longer-term datasets.

884
00:36:33,750 --> 00:36:35,120
There's other things that animals can do,

885
00:36:35,120 --> 00:36:36,330
changes in physiology,

886
00:36:36,330 --> 00:36:38,170
and we also saw this in our data set.

887
00:36:38,170 --> 00:36:41,030
We did see some evidence of
acclimation and adaptation

888
00:36:41,030 --> 00:36:42,750
where animals during different seasons

889
00:36:42,750 --> 00:36:45,080
were responding to CO2 in different ways.

890
00:36:45,080 --> 00:36:48,400
This was more evident in
the gene expression data,

891
00:36:48,400 --> 00:36:50,950
but the animals are definitely responding

892
00:36:50,950 --> 00:36:52,190
slightly differently when they've been

893
00:36:52,190 --> 00:36:54,400
exposed to something for a while.

894
00:36:54,400 --> 00:36:56,670
The question is, how do animals
deal with multiple changes,

895
00:36:56,670 --> 00:36:58,500
and is there enough time for evolution?

896
00:36:58,500 --> 00:37:00,060
Are animals already at these limits?

897
00:37:00,060 --> 00:37:02,103
Again, scary questions, kind of downer.

898
00:37:03,760 --> 00:37:05,480
Generally what we see right now

899
00:37:05,480 --> 00:37:09,370
is there are things that
can be done about this.

900
00:37:09,370 --> 00:37:10,810
We know what the animals can do,

901
00:37:10,810 --> 00:37:12,360
but what do humans do

902
00:37:12,360 --> 00:37:14,640
once we see that these
changes are happening?

903
00:37:14,640 --> 00:37:17,290
And we are already
engaged in a lot of things

904
00:37:17,290 --> 00:37:18,270
to respond to OA.

905
00:37:18,270 --> 00:37:20,530
So we have monitoring of populations

906
00:37:20,530 --> 00:37:21,700
and we're working really hard

907
00:37:21,700 --> 00:37:24,150
to increase the observation
of acidification

908
00:37:24,150 --> 00:37:27,270
near and directly focused
on our marine resources.

909
00:37:27,270 --> 00:37:29,980
So thinking in a smart way

910
00:37:29,980 --> 00:37:31,317
about where we want to study things

911
00:37:31,317 --> 00:37:33,020
and what we want to study at the same time

912
00:37:33,020 --> 00:37:34,700
so that we can get the most information

913
00:37:34,700 --> 00:37:37,740
that's important for
the general population

914
00:37:37,740 --> 00:37:39,540
is what we're working on right now.

915
00:37:39,540 --> 00:37:42,340
We can start modeling
future habitat ranges,

916
00:37:42,340 --> 00:37:46,320
so based on our knowledge of
what an animal can handle.

917
00:37:46,320 --> 00:37:47,580
So we can start to say,

918
00:37:47,580 --> 00:37:49,610
okay, we know that the
chemistry is doing this,

919
00:37:49,610 --> 00:37:51,700
the animals are gonna be able to do this,

920
00:37:51,700 --> 00:37:52,840
where are they going to move?

921
00:37:52,840 --> 00:37:55,403
Which gives us a sense
about how to handle that.

922
00:37:56,450 --> 00:37:58,700
Right now, there's groups working on

923
00:37:58,700 --> 00:38:00,880
running similar sensitivity experiments

924
00:38:00,880 --> 00:38:02,360
in a wider range of animals

925
00:38:02,360 --> 00:38:04,570
so that we can put those into models.

926
00:38:04,570 --> 00:38:06,220
And there is conversations about

927
00:38:06,220 --> 00:38:08,660
are we going to need to
move fishing industries

928
00:38:08,660 --> 00:38:10,120
out of regions of risk to OA?

929
00:38:10,120 --> 00:38:12,930
So when are conditions
gonna become bad enough

930
00:38:12,930 --> 00:38:16,230
that people are going to
have to make economic changes

931
00:38:16,230 --> 00:38:17,810
in response to these things?

932
00:38:17,810 --> 00:38:19,750
And absolutely there's a lot
of work going on right now

933
00:38:19,750 --> 00:38:20,900
to develop blue technologies,

934
00:38:20,900 --> 00:38:23,080
to try to mitigate this
coastal ocean acidification.

935
00:38:23,080 --> 00:38:24,360
Because keep in mind,

936
00:38:24,360 --> 00:38:25,960
all of this is happening in concert

937
00:38:25,960 --> 00:38:28,040
with a lot of other stressors,

938
00:38:28,040 --> 00:38:31,220
and so working to see how
you can reduce other stress

939
00:38:31,220 --> 00:38:33,303
sometimes makes a big enough difference.

940
00:38:35,340 --> 00:38:38,020
But, that doesn't really get to

941
00:38:38,020 --> 00:38:40,120
the underlying cause of what's going on.

942
00:38:40,120 --> 00:38:44,460
So what really needs to change
is personal and group efforts

943
00:38:44,460 --> 00:38:47,210
to stop the underlying root cause.

944
00:38:47,210 --> 00:38:50,090
We can reduce other stresses
on the ocean ecosystem.

945
00:38:50,090 --> 00:38:51,950
So in New England,

946
00:38:51,950 --> 00:38:53,200
there's a lot of wonderful ways

947
00:38:53,200 --> 00:38:54,760
to support good fisheries practices,

948
00:38:54,760 --> 00:38:56,323
support marine reserves,

949
00:38:57,400 --> 00:39:00,440
reduce water and fertilizer
use, reduce ocean pollutants,

950
00:39:00,440 --> 00:39:02,530
and not just like, plastic
straws and plastic bags.

951
00:39:02,530 --> 00:39:03,840
There's a lot of things that can be done

952
00:39:03,840 --> 00:39:08,460
to just create a more
sustainable ocean environment.

953
00:39:08,460 --> 00:39:09,880
And critically,

954
00:39:09,880 --> 00:39:13,180
ocean acidification is
tied to our CO2 production.

955
00:39:13,180 --> 00:39:17,510
So modeling good energy use
behavior and consumer choices,

956
00:39:17,510 --> 00:39:19,430
really, really living with less,

957
00:39:19,430 --> 00:39:21,910
just less stuff, less energy,

958
00:39:21,910 --> 00:39:24,320
all that helps because
it reduces emissions

959
00:39:24,320 --> 00:39:27,110
and actually promotes a cultural change.

960
00:39:27,110 --> 00:39:28,690
Another thing is you
can really get involved.

961
00:39:28,690 --> 00:39:30,370
There's many local and regional projects

962
00:39:30,370 --> 00:39:32,000
that help reduce CO2,

963
00:39:32,000 --> 00:39:33,540
like programs, clean energy projects,

964
00:39:33,540 --> 00:39:35,190
farmers' markets, et cetera.

965
00:39:35,190 --> 00:39:36,550
But I think the biggest take-home thing

966
00:39:36,550 --> 00:39:38,270
is that this is a group effort.

967
00:39:38,270 --> 00:39:40,110
So you need to be supporting businesses,

968
00:39:40,110 --> 00:39:42,310
policies, and people who
recognize the dangers of CO2

969
00:39:42,310 --> 00:39:44,750
and are doing something about it.

970
00:39:44,750 --> 00:39:47,080
I also find that there's this piece about

971
00:39:47,080 --> 00:39:48,800
being a little hesitant
to share your information

972
00:39:48,800 --> 00:39:51,100
'cause you don't feel
like you have enough.

973
00:39:51,100 --> 00:39:52,320
Get it out there, right?

974
00:39:52,320 --> 00:39:53,990
Like, if you care about these things,

975
00:39:53,990 --> 00:39:56,380
look how cute they are, you
should be caring about them!

976
00:39:56,380 --> 00:39:58,940
Share your information and
encourage others to do as well.

977
00:39:58,940 --> 00:40:01,130
Because you can't say something

978
00:40:01,130 --> 00:40:02,690
that you don't know about, right?

979
00:40:02,690 --> 00:40:04,720
You can't love something
that you don't know about,

980
00:40:04,720 --> 00:40:05,553
and if you don't love it,

981
00:40:05,553 --> 00:40:10,553
it's really hard to give
up that extra whatever,

982
00:40:10,670 --> 00:40:14,440
that extra CO2-producing
thing to save them.

983
00:40:14,440 --> 00:40:16,090
So please do share your information,

984
00:40:16,090 --> 00:40:18,340
encourage others to do that as well.

985
00:40:18,340 --> 00:40:19,360
And so with that,

986
00:40:19,360 --> 00:40:21,130
I really want to thank
you for your attention.

987
00:40:21,130 --> 00:40:23,530
This project was participated in

988
00:40:23,530 --> 00:40:26,970
by such a host of wonderful people.

989
00:40:26,970 --> 00:40:30,300
And so I want to thank all of my funders,

990
00:40:30,300 --> 00:40:31,650
my ongoing work right now,

991
00:40:31,650 --> 00:40:33,510
my collaborators who you can see here.

992
00:40:33,510 --> 00:40:37,730
And if you're interested in
the published scientific work,

993
00:40:37,730 --> 00:40:39,690
I have listed those here,

994
00:40:39,690 --> 00:40:42,440
happy to provide them to you
if you send me a direct email

995
00:40:42,440 --> 00:40:44,350
if you don't have access to them.

996
00:40:44,350 --> 00:40:45,530
And with that, I'd really love

997
00:40:45,530 --> 00:40:47,930
to take any questions, please.

998
00:40:51,493 --> 00:40:54,400
- Thank you so much, Dr.
Maas, that was wonderful!

999
00:40:54,400 --> 00:40:55,863
Really enjoyed your talk.

1000
00:40:56,989 --> 00:40:59,539
And so I'm gonna start off
with the first question,

1001
00:41:00,550 --> 00:41:04,490
and it's we heard from a previous talk

1002
00:41:04,490 --> 00:41:07,990
that the Gulf of Maine has seen

1003
00:41:07,990 --> 00:41:11,010
a very precipitous rise in temperature,

1004
00:41:11,010 --> 00:41:14,453
more so than much of
the rest of the world.

1005
00:41:15,640 --> 00:41:18,784
And so you're sort of, by
studying pteropods here,

1006
00:41:18,784 --> 00:41:20,580
you may be developing a system

1007
00:41:20,580 --> 00:41:23,270
that could help with, I
assume, pteropods elsewhere,

1008
00:41:23,270 --> 00:41:24,540
and are there other people

1009
00:41:24,540 --> 00:41:28,819
doing this kind of work
elsewhere in the world?

1010
00:41:28,819 --> 00:41:29,996
- Absolutely, absolutely.

1011
00:41:29,996 --> 00:41:32,610
So, as I said, there was a
consensus paper, our firm,

1012
00:41:32,610 --> 00:41:35,030
all the pteropod people
working all over the world.

1013
00:41:35,030 --> 00:41:36,800
Pteropods tend to be
colder water creatures,

1014
00:41:36,800 --> 00:41:38,440
or the ones that we've mostly studied.

1015
00:41:38,440 --> 00:41:40,137
So the spiral shell pteropods

1016
00:41:40,137 --> 00:41:42,590
are the ones that we've studied the most.

1017
00:41:42,590 --> 00:41:46,700
Here in Bermuda we have
the different shaped ones

1018
00:41:46,700 --> 00:41:47,670
and people have done

1019
00:41:47,670 --> 00:41:49,750
substantially less work
on those pteropods.

1020
00:41:49,750 --> 00:41:53,060
So actually one of the things
that's recently happened

1021
00:41:53,060 --> 00:41:55,900
with this NOAA EcoMon
collaboration that I'm doing

1022
00:41:55,900 --> 00:41:57,210
is that last fall

1023
00:41:57,210 --> 00:41:59,910
they sent me all of their
pteropod collections

1024
00:41:59,910 --> 00:42:02,577
and none of them were the sea
species I've worked on before.

1025
00:42:02,577 --> 00:42:05,440
And so, but because of that,
(Dr. Scottgale laughing)

1026
00:42:05,440 --> 00:42:08,700
because of that, I'm going
to use the same method

1027
00:42:08,700 --> 00:42:13,090
that I have already validated
in the lab with one species

1028
00:42:13,090 --> 00:42:15,280
and start using these other species

1029
00:42:15,280 --> 00:42:17,370
so that we start getting
more warm water creatures,.

1030
00:42:17,370 --> 00:42:18,800
Because it was precisely what you said,

1031
00:42:18,800 --> 00:42:21,550
they had a big bolus of warm
water that came onto the shelf,

1032
00:42:21,550 --> 00:42:24,663
everything they collected
was subtropical, basically.

1033
00:42:25,497 --> 00:42:28,500
And so I can start to try to
use that method and create

1034
00:42:28,500 --> 00:42:33,500
those covariates to say
more for warmer species.

1035
00:42:34,190 --> 00:42:35,583
- Cool.
- Absolutely.

1036
00:42:38,537 --> 00:42:41,470
- Hi, Dr. Maas and
everybody, I'm Jason Brown,

1037
00:42:41,470 --> 00:42:44,030
also part of the Biology Department

1038
00:42:44,030 --> 00:42:45,730
and the Darwin Festival Committee.

1039
00:42:47,330 --> 00:42:51,383
I wanted to ask a question from
one of the audience members.

1040
00:42:52,500 --> 00:42:55,290
Have you thought of using this model

1041
00:42:56,330 --> 00:43:00,540
to study calcareous phytoplankton as well?

1042
00:43:00,540 --> 00:43:01,373
- Yes.

1043
00:43:01,373 --> 00:43:03,570
So this approach where
you look at thresholds

1044
00:43:03,570 --> 00:43:05,930
and then apply the chemistry,

1045
00:43:05,930 --> 00:43:07,390
that is absolutely possible

1046
00:43:07,390 --> 00:43:09,563
to do with calcifying organisms.

1047
00:43:11,160 --> 00:43:13,590
Again, there's these levels of complexity

1048
00:43:13,590 --> 00:43:15,660
that fall into our understanding

1049
00:43:15,660 --> 00:43:18,400
that have to do with the
amount of biodiversity

1050
00:43:18,400 --> 00:43:20,850
and how different groups respond.

1051
00:43:20,850 --> 00:43:23,880
So in some ways we say
that, yes, we can translate

1052
00:43:25,170 --> 00:43:27,470
calcium carbonate phytoplankton

1053
00:43:27,470 --> 00:43:29,390
from one ocean basin's response

1054
00:43:29,390 --> 00:43:32,380
to the same as another
ocean basin's response,

1055
00:43:32,380 --> 00:43:34,470
isn't necessarily always true,

1056
00:43:34,470 --> 00:43:36,520
so we have to be cautious about it.

1057
00:43:36,520 --> 00:43:38,580
But the approach is being tried

1058
00:43:38,580 --> 00:43:40,430
where we do these big
global models and we say,

1059
00:43:40,430 --> 00:43:42,770
okay, we think we're gonna see an increase

1060
00:43:43,730 --> 00:43:45,240
in this type of phytoplankton

1061
00:43:45,240 --> 00:43:46,460
and we think we're gonna see a decrease

1062
00:43:46,460 --> 00:43:47,760
in this type of phytoplankton.

1063
00:43:47,760 --> 00:43:49,100
And as we learn more about

1064
00:43:49,100 --> 00:43:51,810
the different sort of
subspecies and different groups,

1065
00:43:51,810 --> 00:43:54,180
we're polishing that up to be able to say

1066
00:43:54,180 --> 00:43:55,700
a little bit more about, sort of,

1067
00:43:55,700 --> 00:43:58,320
it's also that these animals
to don't live in a void, right?

1068
00:43:58,320 --> 00:44:00,740
They're competing with
each other for space,

1069
00:44:00,740 --> 00:44:05,740
and so having even like a
slight disadvantage or advantage

1070
00:44:05,770 --> 00:44:06,620
can make a difference

1071
00:44:06,620 --> 00:44:08,920
when they're interacting with
the rest of the community.

1072
00:44:08,920 --> 00:44:10,853
So sometimes it's tricky,

1073
00:44:11,830 --> 00:44:13,890
but the thing about
building the models is then

1074
00:44:13,890 --> 00:44:16,720
we build the models and then we test them.

1075
00:44:16,720 --> 00:44:17,553
We build the models

1076
00:44:17,553 --> 00:44:19,300
and then we measure the
animals and we compare,

1077
00:44:19,300 --> 00:44:20,570
and so it it's this process

1078
00:44:20,570 --> 00:44:22,940
of just like iteratively going forward

1079
00:44:22,940 --> 00:44:23,860
and trying to have a better sense.

1080
00:44:23,860 --> 00:44:24,960
But yes, this approach

1081
00:44:24,960 --> 00:44:28,270
of using thresholds and modeling

1082
00:44:28,270 --> 00:44:30,303
is absolutely being applied
to a number of different,

1083
00:44:30,303 --> 00:44:31,763
even fish, right?

1084
00:44:34,330 --> 00:44:36,570
- Dr. Maas, here's a
question from a student.

1085
00:44:36,570 --> 00:44:38,450
Regarding the recent volcanic eruptions,

1086
00:44:38,450 --> 00:44:40,180
is the exposure of sulfuric acid

1087
00:44:40,180 --> 00:44:42,270
detrimental to the ocean as well?

1088
00:44:42,270 --> 00:44:43,430
Also, there are some experiments

1089
00:44:43,430 --> 00:44:45,500
of releasing sulfuric
acid into the atmosphere

1090
00:44:45,500 --> 00:44:47,290
to reduce global warming.

1091
00:44:47,290 --> 00:44:50,023
Wouldn't this also affect
the oceans negatively?

1092
00:44:51,460 --> 00:44:53,163
- So there's a couple pieces there.

1093
00:44:54,360 --> 00:44:56,091
The sulfuric acid isn't going to stop

1094
00:44:56,091 --> 00:44:56,924
the acidification problem.

1095
00:44:56,924 --> 00:44:59,270
So this is one of the difficulties

1096
00:44:59,270 --> 00:45:02,580
of trying to come at it
like sneakily and sideways

1097
00:45:02,580 --> 00:45:04,530
and not just actually fixing the problem,

1098
00:45:04,530 --> 00:45:06,573
is that as we try to,

1099
00:45:07,430 --> 00:45:10,260
or as volcanoes happen
and the sulfuric acid

1100
00:45:10,260 --> 00:45:12,010
goes into the atmosphere,

1101
00:45:12,010 --> 00:45:13,500
it changes atmosphere processes

1102
00:45:13,500 --> 00:45:17,500
that affect radiative
processes of global heating,

1103
00:45:17,500 --> 00:45:19,900
but it's not gonna affect
the acidification point.

1104
00:45:19,900 --> 00:45:22,000
So the volcanoes, absolutely.

1105
00:45:22,000 --> 00:45:23,770
The thing that's interesting
about the volcanoes

1106
00:45:23,770 --> 00:45:25,920
is like there's the local effect,

1107
00:45:25,920 --> 00:45:27,420
and absolutely all these things

1108
00:45:27,420 --> 00:45:30,370
that we put into the atmosphere
equilibriate with the ocean,

1109
00:45:30,370 --> 00:45:32,900
but it depends upon sort of dosage.

1110
00:45:32,900 --> 00:45:35,980
And volcanoes have a more local effect,

1111
00:45:35,980 --> 00:45:37,003
although they do end up in the atmosphere

1112
00:45:37,003 --> 00:45:38,770
because it spreads out a bit.

1113
00:45:38,770 --> 00:45:42,010
It's sort of different
than this global CO2.

1114
00:45:42,010 --> 00:45:46,330
Although we see differences
in CO2 going into the ocean,

1115
00:45:46,330 --> 00:45:50,680
like because of airflows and
the production of CO2, right?

1116
00:45:50,680 --> 00:45:52,940
So it does mix,

1117
00:45:52,940 --> 00:45:55,850
but there are patchiness in
relationship to that too,

1118
00:45:55,850 --> 00:45:57,573
so there's local and global.

1119
00:45:59,040 --> 00:46:02,115
I think that answered that one.

1120
00:46:02,115 --> 00:46:03,880
- [Dr. Scottgale] Yep.

1121
00:46:03,880 --> 00:46:07,960
- Thanks, so I have another
question from a student.

1122
00:46:07,960 --> 00:46:10,850
This student would like you
to expand a little bit more

1123
00:46:10,850 --> 00:46:13,774
on what brought you to
Bermuda in the first place.

1124
00:46:13,774 --> 00:46:17,110
- (laughs) Turning left!

1125
00:46:17,110 --> 00:46:20,920
So, I was finishing my
postdoc and I needed a job

1126
00:46:20,920 --> 00:46:23,480
and my husband is also a marine biologist

1127
00:46:23,480 --> 00:46:24,940
and he needed a job.

1128
00:46:24,940 --> 00:46:26,560
And so we applied for jobs,

1129
00:46:26,560 --> 00:46:29,230
and Bermuda is actually one of the homes

1130
00:46:29,230 --> 00:46:31,690
of the longest running
open ocean time series.

1131
00:46:31,690 --> 00:46:33,570
So the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series

1132
00:46:33,570 --> 00:46:35,030
and the Hydrostation time series

1133
00:46:35,030 --> 00:46:37,050
and the Oceanic Flux Program.

1134
00:46:37,050 --> 00:46:39,350
And being on this teeny tiny rock,

1135
00:46:39,350 --> 00:46:41,610
like, tiny, 60,000 people, right,

1136
00:46:41,610 --> 00:46:43,330
in the middle of the ocean,

1137
00:46:43,330 --> 00:46:45,010
has this phenomenal advantage

1138
00:46:45,010 --> 00:46:48,410
that we can get out into
deep water extremely quickly,

1139
00:46:48,410 --> 00:46:50,790
like 45 minutes, grab a bunch of animals,

1140
00:46:50,790 --> 00:46:52,780
bring them back to the lab.

1141
00:46:52,780 --> 00:46:56,070
And then as part of this time series,

1142
00:46:56,070 --> 00:46:57,880
we can do our experiments

1143
00:46:57,880 --> 00:46:59,790
and then embed them in these datasets,

1144
00:46:59,790 --> 00:47:01,110
which is part of that
what I was just saying.

1145
00:47:01,110 --> 00:47:04,100
That iterative process
of you do an experiment,

1146
00:47:04,100 --> 00:47:05,010
you try to understand,

1147
00:47:05,010 --> 00:47:07,980
and then you see what the
natural environment is doing,

1148
00:47:07,980 --> 00:47:10,020
and so you can start making measurements

1149
00:47:10,020 --> 00:47:12,210
like sort of on top of the time series.

1150
00:47:12,210 --> 00:47:14,360
So that was a huge draw for us.

1151
00:47:14,360 --> 00:47:17,420
So they offered us two
jobs, which was a big part.

1152
00:47:17,420 --> 00:47:18,640
But this was not our only choice,

1153
00:47:18,640 --> 00:47:20,010
and so the thing that really swung it

1154
00:47:20,010 --> 00:47:23,293
was that the open ocean access
in Bermuda is really good.

1155
00:47:26,450 --> 00:47:27,750
Come to Bermuda, it's fun!

1156
00:47:28,860 --> 00:47:31,590
Maybe not during COVID.
(Dr. Scottgale laughs)

1157
00:47:31,590 --> 00:47:32,460
It's actually pretty safe,

1158
00:47:32,460 --> 00:47:34,163
but travel is just a pain right now.

1159
00:47:35,460 --> 00:47:36,343
- And sort of following on that,

1160
00:47:36,343 --> 00:47:38,843
what do you enjoy most during your study?

1161
00:47:40,530 --> 00:47:41,653
- Oh, goodness.

1162
00:47:43,370 --> 00:47:48,010
I love, just in general, I
love the different connections.

1163
00:47:48,010 --> 00:47:49,410
So you can get like really embedded

1164
00:47:49,410 --> 00:47:53,410
down into the teeny tiny
physiology of the animal,

1165
00:47:53,410 --> 00:47:55,830
and like exactly which gene
is turning up and down.

1166
00:47:55,830 --> 00:47:57,760
And then to be able to zoom back up

1167
00:47:57,760 --> 00:48:00,230
and think about like, there
are shellfish industries

1168
00:48:00,230 --> 00:48:02,880
and I really like clam chowder,

1169
00:48:02,880 --> 00:48:04,730
like I really like clam chowder.

1170
00:48:04,730 --> 00:48:06,810
And so how does what I'm seeing,

1171
00:48:06,810 --> 00:48:08,310
that's this teeny tiny thing,

1172
00:48:08,310 --> 00:48:11,273
relate to this global thing?

1173
00:48:13,104 --> 00:48:14,110
So that's the part I love the best.

1174
00:48:14,110 --> 00:48:15,520
The part that's the hardest for me

1175
00:48:15,520 --> 00:48:19,190
is figuring out how to make
that gene expression data

1176
00:48:19,190 --> 00:48:23,050
turn into a better world, right?

1177
00:48:23,050 --> 00:48:24,203
More clam chowder.

1178
00:48:25,380 --> 00:48:27,370
And so that's the part that's tricky.

1179
00:48:27,370 --> 00:48:28,470
And so it's actually been

1180
00:48:28,470 --> 00:48:30,230
a really interesting process right now

1181
00:48:30,230 --> 00:48:32,070
trying to work with NOAA,

1182
00:48:32,070 --> 00:48:34,440
because they have a different set of needs

1183
00:48:34,440 --> 00:48:36,970
than what I'm typically working with.

1184
00:48:36,970 --> 00:48:40,600
It's very different getting
a paper published in "PNAS,"

1185
00:48:40,600 --> 00:48:42,480
like, what is required,
check, check, check,

1186
00:48:42,480 --> 00:48:46,223
versus, okay, what do the
fishermen actually need?

1187
00:48:47,380 --> 00:48:49,440
Like, how can I be useful,

1188
00:48:49,440 --> 00:48:51,440
and how can we both get
something out of it?

1189
00:48:51,440 --> 00:48:53,303
Because my time is, you know,

1190
00:48:55,680 --> 00:48:58,363
time, which is money, the song says so.

1191
00:49:01,000 --> 00:49:04,140
- So I had a question actually

1192
00:49:04,140 --> 00:49:07,340
about wondering if you could
expand a little bit more

1193
00:49:07,340 --> 00:49:10,480
on the gene expression
studies that you did.

1194
00:49:10,480 --> 00:49:11,750
So I teach genetics

1195
00:49:11,750 --> 00:49:13,650
and so I want to know more about that.

1196
00:49:14,760 --> 00:49:16,910
And wondering, basically,

1197
00:49:16,910 --> 00:49:21,910
did you see specific
pathways, groups of genes,

1198
00:49:22,580 --> 00:49:25,520
that were increased or
decreased in their expression

1199
00:49:26,570 --> 00:49:30,080
in response to the seasonal cycling,

1200
00:49:30,080 --> 00:49:35,080
and then are those pathways
that could be selected

1201
00:49:35,510 --> 00:49:38,810
for or against in a way
that it would allow them

1202
00:49:38,810 --> 00:49:43,810
to adapt to longer term changes in CO2?

1203
00:49:44,950 --> 00:49:46,070
- Potentially, there's two parts to that.

1204
00:49:46,070 --> 00:49:48,030
So, when we did the experiments,

1205
00:49:48,030 --> 00:49:49,330
we found a suite of genes

1206
00:49:49,330 --> 00:49:53,093
that I would say were clearly
associated with CO2 exposure.

1207
00:49:54,150 --> 00:49:58,157
That there was a set
of carbonic anhydrases

1208
00:49:58,157 --> 00:50:00,143
and extracellular matrix proteins

1209
00:50:00,143 --> 00:50:02,650
that I think have to do with shell,

1210
00:50:02,650 --> 00:50:05,170
and we definitely saw
those under CO2 conditions.

1211
00:50:05,170 --> 00:50:07,810
We also tended to see those during January

1212
00:50:07,810 --> 00:50:09,220
when the shell quality was low

1213
00:50:09,220 --> 00:50:10,950
and when they were exposed to low CO2.

1214
00:50:10,950 --> 00:50:12,670
So those are genes that I would expect

1215
00:50:12,670 --> 00:50:15,340
are responding specifically
to acidification effects

1216
00:50:15,340 --> 00:50:17,460
because one, they're showing up

1217
00:50:17,460 --> 00:50:18,430
in the lab in response to it,

1218
00:50:18,430 --> 00:50:20,900
and two, they're showing up in the field

1219
00:50:20,900 --> 00:50:23,720
at times of year when I'd expect the CO2.

1220
00:50:23,720 --> 00:50:24,730
We tried to get into this,

1221
00:50:24,730 --> 00:50:26,070
the problem is is I don't think

1222
00:50:26,070 --> 00:50:27,410
that they're a closed population.

1223
00:50:27,410 --> 00:50:30,580
And this is the difficulty
with ocean organisms,

1224
00:50:30,580 --> 00:50:32,193
is that the pteropods,

1225
00:50:33,560 --> 00:50:36,590
they get fluxed in from farther north

1226
00:50:36,590 --> 00:50:37,910
and then they swirl about,

1227
00:50:37,910 --> 00:50:39,420
sometimes they get fluxed out again.

1228
00:50:39,420 --> 00:50:41,860
So if they have a population

1229
00:50:41,860 --> 00:50:46,860
that is here long enough to
respond to the CO2 variation,

1230
00:50:46,880 --> 00:50:49,170
then they would be able
to be selected for.

1231
00:50:49,170 --> 00:50:52,230
But if they get swept out into a place

1232
00:50:52,230 --> 00:50:53,710
where there's less variability

1233
00:50:53,710 --> 00:50:56,210
because the ocean dynamics are different,

1234
00:50:56,210 --> 00:50:58,710
then there's not a
population under selection

1235
00:50:58,710 --> 00:51:00,300
and they lose that capacity.

1236
00:51:00,300 --> 00:51:04,410
And so we tried to look at
some of like, microsatellites

1237
00:51:04,410 --> 00:51:05,680
to see whether we thought we had

1238
00:51:05,680 --> 00:51:07,980
the same species all-year round,

1239
00:51:07,980 --> 00:51:10,800
but we didn't have the
appropriate sampling

1240
00:51:10,800 --> 00:51:13,680
to determine how variable
the population is.

1241
00:51:13,680 --> 00:51:15,610
And we know that it's strongly connected

1242
00:51:15,610 --> 00:51:17,620
all the way across the Atlantic.

1243
00:51:17,620 --> 00:51:21,710
So this population goes up into the Arctic

1244
00:51:21,710 --> 00:51:24,290
all the way across to
England, this species.

1245
00:51:24,290 --> 00:51:26,740
And so understanding connectivity,

1246
00:51:26,740 --> 00:51:30,090
so how animals can move
from place to place

1247
00:51:30,090 --> 00:51:34,220
and how the environmental variability

1248
00:51:34,220 --> 00:51:36,540
shifts across those locations

1249
00:51:36,540 --> 00:51:39,330
is important for us to
understand adaptation.

1250
00:51:39,330 --> 00:51:40,500
The other piece that's interesting then

1251
00:51:40,500 --> 00:51:44,740
is could we have animals who
are exposed to even worse CO2

1252
00:51:44,740 --> 00:51:46,550
that are than being fluxed in

1253
00:51:46,550 --> 00:51:49,010
and they add to some
of the resilience here?

1254
00:51:49,010 --> 00:51:52,470
So that's another major
focus of this acidification

1255
00:51:52,470 --> 00:51:54,400
and actually heating work, right?

1256
00:51:54,400 --> 00:51:57,410
So are there populations

1257
00:51:57,410 --> 00:51:59,760
who are already acclimated or adapted

1258
00:51:59,760 --> 00:52:03,270
to a particular
temperature or CO2 exposure

1259
00:52:03,270 --> 00:52:05,140
who will then, those
populations will be able

1260
00:52:05,140 --> 00:52:08,910
to come into our coastal
systems and fill in the niche?

1261
00:52:08,910 --> 00:52:11,270
And so that's another set of work

1262
00:52:11,270 --> 00:52:13,370
that I've been doing in a different bug.

1263
00:52:13,370 --> 00:52:16,250
But yes, there's complexity to that

1264
00:52:16,250 --> 00:52:17,593
that's really compelling.

1265
00:52:18,700 --> 00:52:20,635
And the more mobile organisms,

1266
00:52:20,635 --> 00:52:24,123
like our lobsters who just keep on moving,

1267
00:52:25,220 --> 00:52:28,833
they add that layer of, oh
right, they have behavior, phew!

1268
00:52:29,945 --> 00:52:33,990
(Dr. Scottgale laughing)
So.

1269
00:52:33,990 --> 00:52:34,910
- Another question is,

1270
00:52:34,910 --> 00:52:38,680
do changes in ocean salinity
affect shell calcification

1271
00:52:38,680 --> 00:52:40,213
like acidification does?

1272
00:52:41,240 --> 00:52:46,050
- Changes in salinity change
that saturation state, okay?

1273
00:52:46,050 --> 00:52:50,510
So it's a direct feed in to
what's going on with alkalinity.

1274
00:52:50,510 --> 00:52:53,820
So, oh my gosh, carbonate
chemistry is such a pain!

1275
00:52:53,820 --> 00:52:55,510
So there's these three things that change.

1276
00:52:55,510 --> 00:52:56,940
There's alkalinity,

1277
00:52:56,940 --> 00:52:59,380
which is like how much buffer
you've got in the system,

1278
00:52:59,380 --> 00:53:01,700
like how much Pepto
Bismol is in the system

1279
00:53:01,700 --> 00:53:04,310
to balance when you add the lemon.

1280
00:53:04,310 --> 00:53:05,640
And then you've got the changes,

1281
00:53:05,640 --> 00:53:07,150
like you can add a lot of lemon,

1282
00:53:07,150 --> 00:53:08,510
but if you've got a lot of Pepto Bismol

1283
00:53:08,510 --> 00:53:09,520
it doesn't matter so much.

1284
00:53:09,520 --> 00:53:11,437
So there's this alkalinity piece,

1285
00:53:11,437 --> 00:53:13,140
and salinity plays into that.

1286
00:53:13,140 --> 00:53:17,430
So if you've got fresher water
versus more saline water,

1287
00:53:17,430 --> 00:53:19,320
it changes that dynamic.

1288
00:53:19,320 --> 00:53:20,690
And actually, this is part of the reason

1289
00:53:20,690 --> 00:53:22,280
that when I say things about

1290
00:53:23,440 --> 00:53:25,960
preventing other stressors
in the Gulf of Maine,

1291
00:53:25,960 --> 00:53:29,900
like all those freshwater inputs,
all of that nitrogen load,

1292
00:53:29,900 --> 00:53:32,040
all of those things that
are coming into the system

1293
00:53:32,040 --> 00:53:35,020
interact with those pieces,

1294
00:53:35,020 --> 00:53:38,110
which is why really taking
care of your water quality

1295
00:53:38,110 --> 00:53:42,090
can strongly improve things,
even for acidification.

1296
00:53:42,090 --> 00:53:42,923
Acidification's happening because

1297
00:53:42,923 --> 00:53:44,990
of all of this global stuff,

1298
00:53:44,990 --> 00:53:47,600
but there are local things you can do.

1299
00:53:47,600 --> 00:53:49,220
We still need to fix the global thing,

1300
00:53:49,220 --> 00:53:50,577
don't stop fixing the global thing,

1301
00:53:50,577 --> 00:53:52,460
but you can do some things

1302
00:53:52,460 --> 00:53:54,125
even if you can't get everybody on board

1303
00:53:54,125 --> 00:53:55,180
with the global thing.

1304
00:53:55,180 --> 00:53:56,630
- [Dr. Scottgale] Yeah, cool.

1305
00:53:58,420 --> 00:54:00,620
- Here's another question
from the audience.

1306
00:54:02,560 --> 00:54:05,500
This person says, I would
like to hear a little more

1307
00:54:05,500 --> 00:54:08,920
about pteropods as bioindicators.

1308
00:54:08,920 --> 00:54:11,840
Could you elaborate on that
a little more, Dr. Maas?

1309
00:54:11,840 --> 00:54:14,820
- Sure, so my idea there then

1310
00:54:14,820 --> 00:54:18,370
is that these animals are very sensitive.

1311
00:54:18,370 --> 00:54:22,280
They're sensitive at an early stage,

1312
00:54:22,280 --> 00:54:25,250
we can get them out of the environment,

1313
00:54:25,250 --> 00:54:27,600
and that we can study the changes

1314
00:54:27,600 --> 00:54:29,310
that happen to them biologically

1315
00:54:29,310 --> 00:54:32,180
and from that infer what's happening

1316
00:54:32,180 --> 00:54:33,770
to the things that
people care about, right?

1317
00:54:33,770 --> 00:54:36,180
Because a lot of the organisms

1318
00:54:36,180 --> 00:54:40,010
that we do have greater
interest in like the fish,

1319
00:54:40,010 --> 00:54:42,950
large fish aren't going to be responding

1320
00:54:42,950 --> 00:54:46,470
as rapidly to acidification
on the timescales

1321
00:54:46,470 --> 00:54:47,957
that these short-lived small pteropods

1322
00:54:47,957 --> 00:54:50,460
are going to be responding to.

1323
00:54:50,460 --> 00:54:52,450
So they give us sort of like

1324
00:54:52,450 --> 00:54:54,810
an instantaneous snapshot
picture of what's going on

1325
00:54:54,810 --> 00:54:57,300
when we care about things
that are longer-scaled

1326
00:54:57,300 --> 00:54:59,310
and harder to study, right?

1327
00:54:59,310 --> 00:55:00,933
Like a big clam,

1328
00:55:02,010 --> 00:55:04,270
it's not as sensitive as a tiny pteropod

1329
00:55:04,270 --> 00:55:06,560
because its shell is made
out of a different thing,

1330
00:55:06,560 --> 00:55:07,958
it's got a lot more energetics,

1331
00:55:07,958 --> 00:55:09,270
blah, blah, blah, blah, blah.

1332
00:55:09,270 --> 00:55:11,550
But we can use this more sensitive thing

1333
00:55:11,550 --> 00:55:15,690
to tell us about the things
that are harder to study.

1334
00:55:15,690 --> 00:55:17,040
And these guys, so far,

1335
00:55:17,040 --> 00:55:19,090
I mean, they're not super easy to study,

1336
00:55:19,090 --> 00:55:20,523
but they're not that hard.

1337
00:55:21,560 --> 00:55:23,020
And again, this sort of method

1338
00:55:23,020 --> 00:55:25,720
is like trying to make
it simple as possible

1339
00:55:25,720 --> 00:55:28,470
to collect the bugs, take a picture.

1340
00:55:28,470 --> 00:55:33,470
It's literally, like how gray
is the shell, and off you go.

1341
00:55:33,690 --> 00:55:35,510
So that's what I mean by bioindicator.

1342
00:55:35,510 --> 00:55:37,430
It's like the canary in
the coal mine thing, right?

1343
00:55:37,430 --> 00:55:38,660
You study one organism

1344
00:55:38,660 --> 00:55:39,760
to tell you a lot about the system,

1345
00:55:39,760 --> 00:55:41,540
and you don't pick the
thing that dies immediately,

1346
00:55:41,540 --> 00:55:44,680
you pick the thing that just
like croaking, "ugh, help,"

1347
00:55:44,680 --> 00:55:45,937
this is the pteropods.

1348
00:55:47,648 --> 00:55:51,410
- There's also a question
from a colleague in geography.

1349
00:55:51,410 --> 00:55:53,535
Are you also looking at
the combined stressors

1350
00:55:53,535 --> 00:55:57,840
of ocean acidification and
warming of ocean water?

1351
00:55:57,840 --> 00:55:59,070
- Yes, so I've done a bunch

1352
00:55:59,070 --> 00:56:02,210
of sort of combined stressors studies

1353
00:56:02,210 --> 00:56:03,673
in different situations.

1354
00:56:05,313 --> 00:56:10,180
And also, often we see
high CO2 and low oxygen

1355
00:56:10,180 --> 00:56:12,780
coming together, so we get eutrophication.

1356
00:56:12,780 --> 00:56:15,440
So whenever we have a lot of nitrogen load

1357
00:56:15,440 --> 00:56:18,200
and you get high CO2 plus low oxygen,

1358
00:56:18,200 --> 00:56:20,560
that high CO2 and low oxygen thing

1359
00:56:20,560 --> 00:56:22,130
also happens on the West Coast

1360
00:56:22,130 --> 00:56:23,830
where you have this upwelling water,

1361
00:56:23,830 --> 00:56:25,970
which is causing the
fisheries to fail there,

1362
00:56:25,970 --> 00:56:27,890
or the shell fisheries to fail there.

1363
00:56:27,890 --> 00:56:31,260
With warming, we tend
to see that temperature

1364
00:56:32,640 --> 00:56:35,520
often has a bigger effect,

1365
00:56:35,520 --> 00:56:37,370
but animals that are
like fine, fine, fine,

1366
00:56:37,370 --> 00:56:40,410
you add acidification, they're
like, "I'm done, I'm done!"

1367
00:56:40,410 --> 00:56:42,330
So it's kind of like the straw
that broke the camels back,

1368
00:56:42,330 --> 00:56:43,550
but there's synergistic effects.

1369
00:56:43,550 --> 00:56:45,520
There's some fantastic work going on

1370
00:56:45,520 --> 00:56:48,980
about the synergistic effects there

1371
00:56:48,980 --> 00:56:50,070
at the University of Connecticut

1372
00:56:50,070 --> 00:56:51,130
and the University of Vermont.

1373
00:56:51,130 --> 00:56:54,930
So working with copepods and fish.

1374
00:56:54,930 --> 00:56:58,240
So there's a lot of sort of
looking at that interface.

1375
00:56:58,240 --> 00:57:01,660
It's tricky though, because
they're interacting,

1376
00:57:01,660 --> 00:57:03,670
get like blanket statements of like,

1377
00:57:03,670 --> 00:57:05,740
this is the threshold
for those two things,

1378
00:57:05,740 --> 00:57:07,570
because they can be affecting animals

1379
00:57:07,570 --> 00:57:09,010
in what we call a synergistic way.

1380
00:57:09,010 --> 00:57:10,470
It's not like one plus one equals two,

1381
00:57:10,470 --> 00:57:12,210
it's like one plus one equals three,

1382
00:57:12,210 --> 00:57:14,953
because more things are
happening at a time.

1383
00:57:17,280 --> 00:57:19,570
- We have another person following up.

1384
00:57:19,570 --> 00:57:21,880
Along the bioindicator question,

1385
00:57:21,880 --> 00:57:23,510
isn't it easier to just measure

1386
00:57:23,510 --> 00:57:25,510
the ocean acidification parameters

1387
00:57:25,510 --> 00:57:27,483
rather than try to catch the pteropods?

1388
00:57:28,450 --> 00:57:31,250
- Yes, we can measure the
ocean acidification conditions.

1389
00:57:31,250 --> 00:57:33,470
One of the things that I
love about the pteropods

1390
00:57:33,470 --> 00:57:35,880
is that they hold the signal

1391
00:57:35,880 --> 00:57:38,720
over a longer integrated period of time.

1392
00:57:38,720 --> 00:57:40,530
So the day that you go out,

1393
00:57:40,530 --> 00:57:42,203
you happen to go out on the boat,

1394
00:57:43,580 --> 00:57:48,380
you may catch an acidification profile,

1395
00:57:48,380 --> 00:57:49,590
but the pteropods are telling you

1396
00:57:49,590 --> 00:57:52,227
kind of what's happened
the two weeks before.

1397
00:57:52,227 --> 00:57:54,590
So they're integrating
over a longer time period,

1398
00:57:54,590 --> 00:57:56,210
and I feel like that is more reflective

1399
00:57:56,210 --> 00:57:57,560
of what animals experience,

1400
00:57:57,560 --> 00:57:59,470
the variability up and down, right?

1401
00:57:59,470 --> 00:58:03,400
Because there is a bunch of
movement in the ecosystem.

1402
00:58:03,400 --> 00:58:05,660
And so, in some ways,

1403
00:58:05,660 --> 00:58:07,260
unless we have buoys out there,

1404
00:58:07,260 --> 00:58:09,020
which is not a bad idea,

1405
00:58:09,020 --> 00:58:11,120
or gliders who are profiling,

1406
00:58:11,120 --> 00:58:14,220
who tell us more this
high resolution chemistry,

1407
00:58:14,220 --> 00:58:15,907
then those are fantastic
ways of doing that.

1408
00:58:15,907 --> 00:58:17,540
But right now,

1409
00:58:17,540 --> 00:58:20,710
to embed in the systems that
we already have ongoing,

1410
00:58:20,710 --> 00:58:22,710
we need to do this snapshot.

1411
00:58:22,710 --> 00:58:26,320
And the snapshot is,

1412
00:58:26,320 --> 00:58:28,900
because of the time series
that are already happening,

1413
00:58:28,900 --> 00:58:31,620
we have full biology counts

1414
00:58:31,620 --> 00:58:33,520
of all of the animals at the same time.

1415
00:58:33,520 --> 00:58:34,810
So the animals we care about, right?

1416
00:58:34,810 --> 00:58:38,990
We've got counts of how
many fish, shellfish,

1417
00:58:38,990 --> 00:58:40,560
blah, blah, blah, blah,
blah, are at every time,

1418
00:58:40,560 --> 00:58:42,680
so it's not actually that much extra work

1419
00:58:42,680 --> 00:58:45,420
to grab a couple pteropods.

1420
00:58:45,420 --> 00:58:47,430
- I think we've run out of time.

1421
00:58:47,430 --> 00:58:49,530
I want to thank you for
a very wonderful time

1422
00:58:49,530 --> 00:58:50,883
and a wonderful talk.